Small Forest Fragments Research Articles

Predicting biodiversity change and averting collapse in agricultural landscapes

The equilibrium theory of island biogeography is the basis for estimating extinction rates and a pillar of conservation science. The default strategy for conserving biodiversity is the designation of nature reserves, treated as islands in an inhospitable sea of human activity. Despite the profound influence of islands on conservation theory and practice, their mainland analogues, forest fragments in human-dominated landscapes, consistently defy expected biodiversity patterns based on island biogeography theory. Countryside biogeography is an alternative framework, which recognizes that the fate of the world's wildlife will be decided largely by the hospitality of agricultural or countryside ecosystems. Here we directly test these biogeographic theories by comparing a Neotropical countryside ecosystem with a nearby island ecosystem, and show that each supports similar bat biodiversity in fundamentally different ways. The island ecosystem conforms to island biogeographic predictions of bat species loss, in which the water matrix is not habitat. In contrast, the countryside ecosystem has high species richness and evenness across forest reserves and smaller forest fragments. Relative to forest reserves and fragments, deforested countryside habitat supports a less species-rich, yet equally even, bat assemblage. Moreover, the bat assemblage associated with deforested habitat is compositionally novel because of predictable changes in abundances by many species using human-made habitat. Finally, we perform a global meta-analysis of bat biogeographic studies, spanning more than 700 species. It generalizes our findings, showing that separate biogeographic theories for countryside and island ecosystems are necessary. A theory of countryside biogeography is essential to conservation strategy in the agricultural ecosystems that comprise roughly half of the global land surface and are likely to increase even further.

Forest fragment spatial distribution matters for tropical tree conservation

Deforestation and associated forest fragmentation are main drivers of species loss across the tropics. Many studies have focused on how fragment edge effect, size, isolation and shape, affect species persistence within landscapes. Little attention has been paid to the impact of the distribution of the fragments itself on the preservation of local species pools. Here we test the importance of the spatial distribution of remaining forest fragments, relative to other fragmentation effects, on tree species diversity, composition and rarity patterns within a tropical landscape converted to rubber plantations in southern Yunnan, China. We find that the remaining forest fragments are non-randomly distributed in the landscape, with most fragments located at higher elevations, steeper slopes and shade aspects. At the same time we find that most of the observed patterns in tree diversity, composition and rarity are explained by the location of the fragments within the landscape, with very little additional impact of other fragmentation effects, even though fragmentation started more than two decades ago. We conclude that during the initial stages of land use change, the protection of forest areas along the entire environmental gradient should be a prime focus for conservation efforts as it is at this stage that most tree species can be preserved in the landscape. We also stress the importance of small forest fragments for the conservation of tree species, especially because such fragments are usually located in sites with the highest deforestation rates.

Forest remnants enhance wild pollinator visits to cashew flowers and mitigate pollination deficit in NE Brazil

Pollination deficit could cause low yields in cashew (Anacardium occidentale) and it is possible that deforestation surrounding cashew plantations may prevent effective pollinators from visiting cashew flowers and contribute to this deficit. In the present work, we investigated the proximity effect of small and large forest fragments on the abundance and flower visits by feral Apis mellifera and wild native pollinators to cashew flowers and their interactions with yield in cashew plantations. Cashew nut yield was highest when plantations bordered a small forest fragment and were close to the large forest fragment. Yield from plantations that did not border small forest fragments but were close to the large forest fragment did not differ to yield from plantations at a greater distance to the large forest fragment. Flower visits by wild native pollinators, mainly Trigona spinipes, were negatively affected by distance to the large forest remnant and their numbers were directly correlated to nut yield. The number of A. mellifera visiting cashew flowers did not change significantly with distance to forest fragments, nor was it correlated with yield. We conclude that increasing the number of wild pollinator visits may increase yield, and proximity to large forest fragments are important for this.

Richness, diversity and abundance of bats in small forest fragments of the Atlantic Forest in northern Parana, Brazil

This study aims to investigate the correlation between the size of four forest fragments in northern Parana with the richness, diversity and relative abundance of bats community. Monthly collections were performed for each fragment from July 2008 to June 2009, with the use of eight mist nets, comprising 160 m2 of exhibition area, totaling 192 hours. The capture effort was equal to 7,680 m2/h. The richness was analyzed according to the number of species, the diversity was obtained by the Shannon-Wiener index and the relative abundance was calculated by dividing the total of individuals captured by the captures effort. Simple linear regressions were performed to verify the effect of the independent variable in relation to ecological parameters mentioned above. The largest fragment had a higher abundance and higher gross value of diversity index. It is possible that the adult individuals of uncommon species be the last in the area and that, due to the reduction of their habitats, their local populations will disappear in the future. Therefore, the maintenance of fragments, regardless of size, is essential for the conservation of bat communities.

Cultural drivers of reforestation in tropical forest groves of the Western Ghats of India

Sacred forest groves in the Western Ghats of India are small fragments of tropical forest that have received protection due to religious beliefs and cultural practices. These forest fragments are an example of community-based conservation and they serve as refugia for many forest-dwelling species in otherwise highly anthropogenic tropical forest-agriculture landscapes of the Indian Western Ghats. Many of these sacred forest groves are considered ancient woodlands, but there is very little information on their origins. For instance: How old are these sacred groves? Are they relics of forest that was once continuous or are they patches of regenerated vegetation? How do changes in the surrounding landscape influence the vegetation in these groves? Based on palaeoecological reconstruction in two such sacred forest groves, we determined the age of these forest fragments. Both reconstructions indicate transition from non-forest open landscape to tree-covered landscape at these sites. These finding from two sacred groves challenge the common perception that sacred forest groves are remnants of once-continuous forest; instead, some sacred groves such as those studied might be regenerated forest patches that are approximately 400years old. This further raises a number of questions about the drivers of reforestation in these groves. What were the social and cultural circumstances which led to the recovery of forest within these patches? How did land tenure influence forest recovery? What role did religious beliefs play in forest restoration? Using Wallace’s (1956) framework of ‘cultural revitalization’ and based on historical literature and palaeoecological analysis of the two sacred groves, this paper examines the drivers of reforestation in the Western Ghats of India. It suggests various social, ecological and economic drivers of such revitalization, recognizing strong linkages between the ‘social’ and the ‘ecological’ within the social–ecological system of sacred forest groves. This example of reforestation suggests that contemporary restoration of forests needs to operate at a landscape scale and look at restoration as a social–ecological intervention in forest management.

Fine-scale genetic structure of the threatened rosewood Dalbergia nigra from the Atlantic Forest: comparing saplings versus adults and small fragment versus continuous forest

Assessing the population genetic structure of threatened species is important for developing successful conservation strategies. In this study, we evaluated the fine-scale spatial genetic structure (SGS) of Dalbergia nigra from a regenerating secondary forest fragment and compared it with previous data from a primary forest of a large reserve. A total of 107 adult and 111 saplings were mapped and genotyped for seven microsatellite loci. The genetic diversity was high and similar in adults (He = 0.682) and saplings (He = 0.680). The spatial extent of SGS was higher in adults than in saplings. Overlapping generations in the potentially reproductive individuals is the likely explanation for the higher SGS in adults (Sp = 0.016) in relation to the saplings (Sp = 0.010). The SGS in the adults from the secondary forest fragment was similar to that found in the primary forest. Considering the SGS found in adults, from both the secondary and primary forests, seeds for ex situ conservation should be collected from trees at least 80 m apart to reduce the genetic similarity between samples. These results highlight the importance of preserving small forest fragments to allow successful regeneration and maintenance of the genetic diversity in D. nigra.

Within-territory use of different land cover types by tropical forest birds in a fragmented landscape

Many terrestrial species of birds have been observed to depend on large contiguous areas of forest; in the tropics this appears to be especially true for terrestrial insectivores. Far less is understood about how more-common species, that are less dependent on interior forests, use both forested and non-forested habitat in fragmented landscapes. Using both behavioral observations and radio-tracking relocation data, I quantified the within-territory use of different land cover types for three tropical songbird species, the dusky antbird (Cercomacra tyrannina), red-throated ant-tanager (Habia fuscicauda), and cocoa woodcreeper (Xiphorhynchus susurrans). Small forest fragments (<50ha) were also surveyed for these same species. Territories of all three species were mostly forest (>75%), with different amounts of non-forested land cover. As predicted, all three species had increased use in forest cover and decreased use where neighboring territories overlapped. In addition all three species had higher use of areas where there were more forest gaps and/or ‘soft edges’ in the vicinity. Dusky antbirds were less likely to use monocultures of non-native grass and impervious surfaces, while the other two species had mixed responses to non-forested habitats. Dusky antbirds and cocoa woodcreepers were observed foraging at higher-than-expected frequencies along ‘hard edges’ of forested habitat. All three species were found in forest fragments even smaller than a minimal home range area estimate. Conservation of more-common bird species in fragmented landscapes can include secondary forests and small remnants but for these three species non-forested land cover alone would not be expected to provide breeding habitat.

Genetic similarity among Caesalpinia echinata trees and their ex situ conservation

Brazilwood (Caesalpinia echinata Lam) is a tree native to the Atlantic rainforest. It has been exploited since the Brazilian colonial period and the remaining natural populations of C. echinata have been reduced to small forest fragments, or are conserved in arboreta and ecological parks. This study aimed to identify the degree of genetic diversity present within brazilwood trees from three different sites in southern Bahia State, through random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers and discuss criteria to enrich an ex situ conservation area in the campus of the Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Brazil. Out of the 53 primers tested, 16 revealed 38 reproducible polymorphic and good quality bands. The similarity coefficients among individuals varied from 0.43 to 1.00. The average similarity coefficients were higher in ex situ collections (0.82 to 0.70) than in situ region (0.46). The UPGMA analysis displayed the formation of three distinct groups, although the similarity among all accessions was high (around 70%). The conservation of plant species away from their natural habitat needs to be done carefully, with the introduction of individuals that offer the highest level of genetic diversity possible and contribute to the biological preservation of the species.

Near-Complete Extinction of Native Small Mammal Fauna 25 Years After Forest Fragmentation

Tropical forests continue to be felled and fragmented around the world. A key question is how rapidly species disappear from forest fragments and how quickly humans must restore forest connectivity to minimize extinctions. We surveyed small mammals on forest islands in Chiew Larn Reservoir in Thailand 5 to 7 and 25 to 26 years after isolation and observed the near-total loss of native small mammals within 5 years from <10-hectare (ha) fragments and within 25 years from 10- to 56-ha fragments. Based on our results, we developed an island biogeographic model and estimated mean extinction half-life (50% of resident species disappearing) to be 13.9 years. These catastrophic extinctions were probably partly driven by an invasive rat species; such biotic invasions are becoming increasingly common in human-modified landscapes. Our results are thus particularly relevant to other fragmented forest landscapes and suggest that small fragments are potentially even more vulnerable to biodiversity loss than previously thought.

Forest-edge utilization by carnivores in relation to local and landscape habitat characteristics in central European farmland

Rapid changes in agricultural landscape structure and composition affect many different farmland biotas, including carnivores, which are a key element of ecosystem stability, yet little is known about their distribution and habitat use. In this study, we evaluated how habitat characteristics on two different spatial scales (local and landscape scale) affected the forest-edge utilization by small and medium-sized carnivores in fragmented central European farmland. Based on an indirect method for detecting carnivores (scent stations), we sampled 212 forest fragments of different sizes (1–7864ha) during April to May from 2006 to 2009. Our results indicate that carnivore utilization of forest-edge habitats was driven by landscape rather than local characteristics even though the overall extent of explained variation was small. The most important factors that determined response of the carnivore community were the area of farmland and that of urban land on a landscape scale. The corridor connectivity between small forest fragments and other spatial elements played a crucial role in the occurrence of red fox. Our results suggest that comprehensive studies on multi-species carnivore assemblage using scent station might be useful in evaluating species-specific response to habitat characteristics, especially if large numbers of stations visited by carnivores are available.

Old Fragments of Forest Inside an Urban Area Are Able to Keep Orchid Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Euglossini) Assemblages? The Case of a Brazilian Historical City

Retention of habitat fragments within the urban matrix can provide critical resources for the maintenance of regional biodiversity while still providing socio-economic value. Euglossini bees are important components in a community as they are important pollinators for economically valuable plants as well as hundreds of orchid species. However, some species are very sensitive to environmental impacts like urbanization. This study presents the role of antique urban fragments in a historical city in Brazil and compares it with a conservation area on the aspects of orchid bee assemblage, such as richness, composition, and abundance. Four fragments inside the city of Ouro Preto and three inside Parque Estadual do Itacolomi (PEIT) were sampled for Euglossini bees. Sorensen similarity index was used to compare community composition. The Mantel test was applied to verify the hypothesis that an urban center is a barrier for the mobility of the individuals. Fourteen Euglossini species from the region were registered. Close to 75% of the sampled bees were collected from the PEIT sampling areas. The fragments presented differences in Euglossini richness and abundance. A majority of the sampled fragments were dominated by the Eulaema cingulata Fabricius, Eulaema nigrita Lepeletier, and Euglossa securigera Dressler species. We found differences on community composition between the fragments localized in PEIT and those located in the urban center. The data suggest that there is a possible flux of individuals between the sampled fragments. The various small forest fragments in Ouro Preto, primarily in backyards, may also serve as stepping stones between sampled fragments.

Pine plantations modify local conditions in forest fragments in southeastern Australia: Insights from a fragmentation experiment

In southeastern Australia, the establishment of tree plantations of Pinus radiata D. Don result in fragmentation of native forests. Conditions within forest fragments adjacent to plantations are dynamic. We use the Wog Wog Habitat Fragmentation Experiment to document the influence of a mature plantation on microclimate, soil chemistry and debris within forest fragments and in continuous forest controls. Fragments were of three sizes - small (0.25ha), medium (0.88ha), and large (3.06ha) - and sampling was stratified according to location within fragment (center, edge, corner). Small forest fragments exhibited an increase in canopy cover and soil moisture, and cooler daily maximum temperatures than continuous forest. We also found the amount of native litter was reduced in fragment corners. Our results demonstrate that tree plantations can continue to modify environmental conditions within forest fragments long after plantation establishment. Changes to the conditions within fragments may facilitate alterations to the biotic component of these areas. These findings have important implications for the conservation and management of dynamic forest-plantation systems.

Functional diversity and management mediate aboveground carbon stocks in small forest fragments

Improved landscape connectivity is increasingly considered a viable management strategy to maintain biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and services. How landscape structure affects biodiversity, ecosystem services, and their relationship, however, is still unclear in many cases, including the service of climate regulation. The effects of forest fragmentation on carbon storage remain largely unknown, compounded by uncertainty in both the direction and magnitude of the relationship between carbon storage and biodiversity. We investigated the effects of forest fragmentation and management on carbon stocks and biodiversity in the Montérégie, QC. We quantified total aboveground carbon stocks in 24 small forest fragments of two sizes (∼10 ha, ∼100 ha), and two levels of connectivity, using a combination of satellite data, field‐based methods, and allometry. We correlated this data with both woody plant species richness and functional dispersion to determine the relationship between biodiversity and carbon stocks in these forest fragments. We found functional dispersion was a significant predictor of aboveground carbon stocks, interacting with forest management and connectivity in this fragmented forest system. Both synergies and tradeoffs between biodiversity and carbon stocks were observed. Unmanaged forest stands stored less carbon on average than managed, but demonstrated a significant positive relationship between functional dispersion and aboveground carbon stocks, corroborating the results of biodiversity‐ecosystem function experiments. The slope of the relationship was significantly greater in connected fragments than isolated, suggesting improved forest connectivity may strengthen the relationship between biodiversity and aboveground carbon stocks in this region. Managed stands exhibited a significant negative relationship, demonstrating that anthropogenic influence can alter the link between biodiversity and carbon stocks in natural systems. Our results suggest that considering management, connectivity, and functional diversity may increase accuracy in estimating landscape level carbon stocks. Additionally, the significant contributions of small forest fragments to regional diversity and service provision emphasizes the important role these fragments can play in conservation efforts.

Habitat specialization interacts with habitat amount to determine dispersal success of rodents in fragmented landscapes

Habitat specialization is considered one of the most important determinants of species vulnerability to habitat loss and fragmentation because it defines species dispersal ability and thus the degree of isolation of populations. Further, dispersal success of habitat-specialist species depends on the distance between fragments, which is conditioned on the total amount of habitat in the landscape. Here, we compared the influence of total habitat amount on dispersal success and abundance patterns of 2 habitat specialists and 1 generalist Atlantic Forest rodent. We investigated short-term population dynamics in a continuous forest landscape as well as in 6 small forest fragments located in 2 landscapes differing in the amount of forest cover (30% and 50%). Further, we analyzed the influence of fragment size on population density in the fragmented landscapes. Number of immigrants and abundance of both habitat-specialist species decreased remarkably in small patches of the 30% forest cover landscape compared to both more-forested landscapes, and both species showed a patch-area effect on density in this landscape. In contrast, the generalist species showed similar immigration rates in continuous forest and patches of the less-forested landscape, high temporal and spatial variability in abundance, and no patch-area effect in any of the landscapes. The results provide empirical support for the interaction between habitat specialization and habitat amount in determining the response of species to habitat loss, showing that the response of habitat specialists—in contrast to generalists—is governed by the landscape-wide amount of habitat.

Patterns of forest vegetation responses to edge effect as revealed by a continuous approach

Understanding the variability of vegetation distribution and its determinants is a central issue for addressing the effects of edges on ecological processes. Recent studies have revealed inconsistencies in the patterns of responses to edge effects that raise important questions about their determinants. We investigated the edge effect response patterns by adapting a recently proposed continuous approach to the case of small forest fragments in southwestern France. We surveyed forest understory vegetation (composition, species richness, and percent cover) and abiotic variables (soil temperature, moisture, pH, and canopy openness) along 28 transects across hard forest edges. We tested five statistical models to describe the response pattern of each variable (1) over all transects and (2) per transect. We then compared the response patterns as a function of the attributes of the edge (orientation, topography, and adjacent land cover) and forest patch size. Over all transects, a general decreasing trend was observed for all variables as the distance from the edge increased. In the individual transects, we evidenced a large variability in the response patterns that was not related to edge attributes or to patch size. It is difficult to assess the depth of edge influence in highly fragmented forests and to identify the determinants of edge effects. We recommend that care should be taken with studies using pool of transects, and that further studies should be carried out including situations with neutral patterns, in order to gain a broader understanding of edge effects on vegetation.

Diet and Feeding Ecology of Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Bulindi, Uganda: Foraging Strategies at the Forest–Farm Interface

Wild animals increasingly inhabit human-influenced environments such as forest fragments amid agricultural systems. Dietary studies provide a means of assessing wildlife responses to anthropogenic habitat changes. Chimpanzees are specialist frugivores that consume other plant parts, e.g., fibrous pith and leaves, in greater amounts during fruit shortages. I examined the plant diet and seasonal foraging strategies of chimpanzees inhabiting small forest fragments within a cultivated landscape in Uganda. I determined diet over 13 mo via systematic fecal analysis, supplemented by direct observation and feeding trace evidence. I identified important foods and examined their role as seasonal fallbacks. Diet composition and breadth were overall species typical. Chimpanzees were highly frugivorous and the fruit component of fecal samples exceeded that of nonfruit fiber in all months. Forest fruit availability fluctuated seasonally, including a 3-mo low fruiting season, when overall fruit intake declined. During this time chimpanzees pursued a mixed strategy of increasing fiber consumption and feeding more heavily on energy-rich cultivars, including those obtained through crop raiding. The data suggest that exploiting agricultural fruits helped chimpanzees maintain a fruit-dominated diet when forest fruit was scarce. No evidence suggested this disturbed forest–farm mosaic is a food-impoverished habitat for chimpanzees overall. Nevertheless, cultivar feeding creates conflict with people and the high nutritional quality of crops is likely offset by the inherent risk associated with obtaining them. This study adds to growing evidence of ecological and behavioral adaptability of Pan troglodytes in response to anthropogenic habitat alteration. Targeted conservation of key natural foods for wildlife —particularly fallbacks— would help reduce conflicts and improve the survival prospects of threatened species sharing environments with people.

Local extinction processes rather than edge effects affect ground beetle assemblages from fragmented and urbanised old beech forests

Abstract Local extinction of specialist species due to fragmentation is one of the major causes of biodiversity loss. Increased extinction rates in smaller fragments are expected to result from both smaller local population sizes, which increase the effect of environmental or demographic stochasticity, and increased edge effects. The relative effect sizes of these two factors are still poorly investigated, however. We attempt to disentangle these effects on ground beetle communities of temperate broadleaved woodland fragments situated in one of the most urbanised regions in Belgium. Assemblages were sampled along transects that extended from 30 m outside to 100 m inside both small and large historical forest fragments. Although species assemblages within the forest were highly distinct compared to those sampled outside the forest, species turnover along these transects was less pronounced within forest fragments indicating only weak edge effects. The magnitude of edge effects did not differ significantly between large and small fragments. Nevertheless, larger differences in species composition were observed with respect to fragment size, wherein highly specialised species persisted only in the largest fragment. In summary, increased local extinction processes in smaller fragments, which led to a strong reduction in specialised and wingless forest species, appeared to be the most important factor that drives changes in species composition in this historical and fragmented woodland complex.

Forest cover outside protected areas plays an important role in the conservation of the Vulnerable guiña Leopardus guigna

AbstractHabitat loss and fragmentation are affecting populations of forest dwelling mammalian carnivores worldwide. In southern Chile, a biodiversity hotspot, anthropogenic activities have resulted in high loss of native forest cover. The guiña, or kodkod cat, Leopardus guigna is a small forest-dwelling felid with a narrow range in the temperate forest of southern Chile. The few existing studies of the species have suggested that it is almost exclusively restricted to large tracts of native forest. This paper reports a study in the temperate forest within a fragmented Andean piedmont landscape which demonstrates that smaller forest fragments in the farmland matrix are playing a key role in the persistence of the guiña. We estimated occupancy in both continuous native forest and remnant forest fragments and, with single-species/single-season models, evaluated the extent to which forest cover, habitat type and proximity to protected areas have a modulating effect on occupancy. A continuous survey during 2008–2009, in three seasons of 90–100 days each, accumulated 6,200 camera trap days and returned 47 photographs of guiña. Total detection in fragments was higher than in continuous forests, with detection confirmed in almost 70% of studied fragments. We found that probability of a site being occupied significantly increased with forest cover (adult/secondary forest, scrubland) and probability was low (&lt; 0.2) in sites with &lt; 50% of surrounding forest cover. Our study highlights the importance of remnant forest fragments in the mosaic of extensive agriculture for the spatial dynamics of a guiña population and hence for the future conservation of the species.

Spatial distribution of orchid bees in a rainforest/rubber agro-forest mosaic: habitat use or connectivity

The spatial distribution of orchid bees was analyzed in a mosaic of tropical rainforest and rubber tree groves in the Atlantic coast of Brazil (ARRF), comparing abundances and species compositions between replicas of the following landscape elements: small and large forest fragments, and rubber tree groves. Species compositions responded to all of the factors examined (time, mosaic elements, and distances; P < 0.009). In contrast, total orchid bee abundance varied significantly only over time (P = 0.0001), but not among the different mosaic elements (P = 0.05). Fragment size and distances between the fragments have affected species composition and abundance of some few common species. Most local species were present in the rubber plantation, and several species were using this matrix as a source of odor. The seasonal quality shifting of this matrix (leaf fall) has had less influence on the spatial distribution of orchid bees than the distances between forest fragments and fragment sizes. Previous studies of forest fragmentation have shown very weak effects of matrix isolation in mosaics with 5 to 90 % of forest cover, which supports the generalized expectation that organisms with well-developed dispersal capacities can respond to much higher thresholds of forest fragmentation.

Epiphytic lichens in subtropical forest ecosystems in southwest China: Species diversity and implications for conservation

Anthropogenic disturbances can severely impact the abundant lichen epiphyte communities of subtropical forests due to habitat loss, fragmentation and alteration. To assess the potential of anthropogenic secondary forests as conservation sites for epiphytic lichens, we investigated epiphytic lichens in 120 plots of eight forest types that are representative for the subtropical Ailao Mountains, southwest China. A total of 217 epiphytic lichen species were recorded, with 83% occurring in primary forests and 97% in secondary forests. Total species richness was significantly higher in the primary Lithocarpus forest (PLF), the middle-aged oak secondary forest (MOSF), the Populus bonatii secondary forest (PBSF) and the Ternstroemia gymnanthera secondary forest (TGSF) compared to four other forest types. The PLF harbored the highest number of rare species, while the MOSF, the PBSF and the TGSF, which had more pioneer tree species, hosted all cyanolichens found in this area. The Sørensen index of similarity between forest types ranged from 0.39 to 0.90. Ordination analysis showed a distinct lichen species composition in each forest type. Correlation analysis indicated that forest characteristics, such as canopy openness and host diversity, significantly influence lichen richness. These findings demonstrate the importance of primary forests for lichen epiphyte conservation, and suggest that the MOSF, the PBSF and the TGSF help preserve crucial components of the subtropical forest landscape and can play important roles in promoting lichen conservation. At a broad landscape scale, a mosaic of extensive primary forests and small secondary forest fragments is important for biodiversity conservation in subtropical regions.