Small Flocks Research Articles

TIPOLOGÍA DE UNIDADES DE PRODUCCIÓN DE GUAJOLOTE CRIOLLO (MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO L.) DE TRASPATIO EN TEMASCALTEPEC, ESTADO DE MÉXICO, MÉXICO

<p><strong>Background</strong>. Despite the fact that it is an indigenous species and of great cultural significance for rural areas of Mexico, breeding and production of turkey is an economic activity that has currently lost importance and is at risk of disappearing, due to structure and management, flock health and social factors <strong>Objective</strong>. Typifying production units (PU) of native backyard turkey in the Municipality of Temascaltepec, State of Mexico. <strong>Methodology</strong>. The information was obtained through a structured survey to holders of 20 PU of backyard turkey. PU were typified using multivariate statistics; a principal component analysis (PCA), to standardize information and with the regressions of the original variables on the new factors obtained, a cluster analysis (CA) to classify PU based on intrinsic characteristics that defined them and extrinsic characteristics that differentiated them. <strong>Results</strong>. The PU are characterized by the presence of small families, small flocks managed by women over 59 years old, who speak nahuatl native language and have primary education. The PU began by buying birds, they have a traditional backyard management, whose food base is corn and kitchen waste. Production is low and is used for self-consumption through the preparation of traditional dishes such as mole. To a lesser extent, both turkey and meat are sold in local markets to improve family income. The continuity of the activity is compromised, in small PU mainly, due to low interest and generational change. <strong>Implications</strong>. The work made it possible to identify the PU trends and the factors that favor production, as well as those factors that compromise the continuity of the family activity. <strong>Conclusion</strong>. There is a diversity of backyard turkey PU, the flocks are small managed by women, the diet is based on grains and kitchen waste, the products obtained are for self-consumption from traditional dishes and their continuity depends on the experience in the activity and the family size.</p>

Characterisation and approaches to the conservation of the Nigerian local duck population: A Review

Abstract Research, development, and breeding of ducks in Nigeria are on the rise and continuous breeding of ducks needs basic information on their production environment, genetic background, and diversity. Nigerian local ducks (NLD) have been phenotypically characterised based on morphological characteristics which have provided a reasonable representation of their genetic difference. Morphological and morphometric variations exist among indigenous ducks of Nigeria and mottled plumage colour is preponderant. Low genetic diversity exists among Nigerian duck populations implying that ducks are in close genetic relationships irrespective of distinctive and varying phenotypic, biochemical, and physiological characteristics, whereas the phylogenetic tree revealed clustered relationships. Large-scale duck farming is uncommon; rather, ducks are kept as a pastime business. The scavenging feeding system is majorly practiced among small flock sizes which are highly predominant. NLDs lay between 100 and 125 eggs yearly when reared under an intensive system of management and also have a high hatching rate of above 70% even though high environmental temperature affects their reproductive performance. There are no organised duck markets in Nigeria. Duck eggs are rarely consumed or sold; rather they are majorly used for breeding purposes. Myths, poor funding, lack of standard laboratories, and lack of skilled workforce are among the factors affecting the development and conservation of indigenous ducks in Nigeria. Introducing improved breeds of duck and establishing conservation programmes will help promote greater duck production and conservation. Duck business is a profitable but seasonal business and can efficiently bridge the noticed protein gap in rural communities.

Coxiella burnetii and Co-Infections with Other Major Pathogens Causing Abortion in Small Ruminant Flocks in the Iberian Peninsula.

Coxiella burnetii is an intracellular bacterium causing human Q fever and reproductive disorders in domestic ruminants. We analyzed the occurrence of C. burnetii and co-infections with six other major pathogens causing abortion in sheep (1242 cases) and goat (371 cases) flocks from Spain and Portugal. After real-time PCR detection, co-infections were established by principal component and cluster analysis that grouped cases based on the joint presence/absence of several microorganisms. C. burnetii and Chlamydia abortus were the most common abortifacient agents with approximately 75% of cases from both hosts testing positive, followed by Toxoplasma gondii, Campylobacter sp., Salmonella enterica, border disease virus and Neospora caninum. C. burnetii was significantly more common than C. abortus in goat abortions (p < 0.001). Co-infections with at least two pathogens were found in more than 66% cases of ovine abortions and 36% cases of caprine abortions testing positive for C. burnetii, mostly including mixed infections with only C. abortus. These findings indicate that both pathogens are the most significant ones to be readily prevented by vaccination in this geographical area. Biosecurity and biocontainment measures are also steadfastly recommended to prevent both the economic losses and public health risks associated with most of these abortifacient agents.

Serological survey of Chlamydia abortus in Greek dairy sheep flocks

Chlamydiosis due to Chlamydia abortus is one of the most common causes of abortion in small ruminant flocks worldwide. Although the causative agent is zoonotic, chlamydiosis is not a reportable disease. There is lack of recent data concerning sheep chlamydiosis in Greece.In the current study, a serological investigation for Chlamydia abortus was conducted. Blood samples from 26 randomly selected sheep flocks not vaccinated against chlamydiosis were collected. From each flock, 15 to 20 blood samples were taken from adult female sheep. In total 464 blood samples were examined. One hundred and six samples were positive (22.8%), while 24 samples (5.24%) were doubtful. Moreover, at farm level, in 18 out of the total number of 26 farms, at least one positive animal was detected (69.2%).Chlamydiosis is considered a highly likely cause of sheep abortion in Greece. Therefore, vaccination of the sheep flocks is strongly recommended for the prevention and control of the disease.

A survey to understand farmers' perceptions and risk factors for hoof diseases including footrot in sheep in New South Wales, Australia.

The aims of this study were to develop an understanding of farmers' perceptions and risk factors for footrot, including its less severe forms, and other hoof diseases in sheep in New South Wales (NSW). A questionnaire was developed and administered to sheep farmers in Local Land Services (LLS) regions across NSW. LLS staff selected sheep farmers who met the inclusion criteria which included farmers with a minimum of 100 sheep, a history of having had foot problems in their flock or having expressed an interest in improving sheep health and production. Farmers completed the questionnaire either by telephone or via the REDCap online survey platform. Descriptive analyses and multivariable logistic regression models were created. The survey was completed by 43 sheep farmers with a median farm size of 1,500 Ha and flock size of 2,300; footrot was present on 39% of farms while 75.6% had other hoof diseases. A flock of >3,000 sheep were more likely to have footrot than a smaller flock (OR = 11.99, 90% CI = 3.02-63.92, P-value = 0.005) and footrot was less likely to be present on farms when an Animal Health Statement was requested while purchasing sheep (OR = 0.10, 90% CI = 0.01-0.56, P-value = 0.04). Hoof conditions other than footrot were likely to be present in flocks when foot inspections were conducted at a time other than weekly inspections (OR = 0.13, 90% CI = 0.01-0.68, P-value = 0.04) and flocks kept on undulating ground were more likely to have diseases other than footrot compared to those kept on flat ground (OR = 3.72, 90% CI = 1.02-15.80, P-value = 0.09). Most farmers agreed that footrot including its less severe forms can cause production losses and negatively affect animal health and welfare. Limitations of the study were the sample size and dry environmental conditions prior to and during study period in many regions of NSW which limited the expression of footrot.

Carcass and Meat Quality Traits of Males and Females of the "Branca" Portuguese Autochthonous Chicken Breed.

Simple SummaryLocal breeds play a crucial role in the rural economies of many countries, as a considerable valuable genetic resource and, well adapted to the environment, their production can reduce the negative impact of intensive production systems. Portuguese chicken breeds are almost extinct, with the “Branca” population presenting the most worrying situation. Bred as a dual-purpose breed, the characterization of meat quality is fundamental to the conservation and promotion of this population., by increasing the value on these small-scale farms production. The carcass characteristics and meat quality of the “Branca” breed were evaluated, showing an interesting physicochemical profile, with good proportion of minerals, essential fatty acids (EFA) and n-3-PUFAs (docosapentanoic (C22:5n-3, DPA), and docosahexaenoic (C22:6n-3, DHA) acids), ensuring that consumers receive a highly nutritional and differentiated product.The “Branca” breed is a dual-purpose Portuguese autochthonous chicken breed, produced in extensive systems and in small flocks, especially in the Entre Douro and Minho regions. A total of 40 birds (n = 20/sex) were slaughtered between 38 and 42 weeks (males) and 110 and 120 weeks (females), and carcass and meat quality parameters were evaluated. The results showed significantly higher weights and differences for males between sexes and pieces (p ≤ 0.05) in the meat physicochemical composition. Water holding capacity (WRC), moisture and ash contents were influenced by sex. They were higher in males in the breast and drumstick and lightness (L*) and lipid content were higher in females (p ≤ 0.05). The breast meat presented greater lightness, moisture, ash and protein contents, while the drumstick showed a higher pH value, redness (a*) and lipid content, in both sexes (p ≤ 0.05). Regarding the nutritional properties, “Branca” meat revealed a good proportion of minerals and the female meat showed, in both pieces (p ≤ 0.05), significantly lower values for total saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and higher values for monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs). Breast meat was richer in n-3-PUFAs (C22:5n-3 and C22:6n-3) in both sexes (p ≤ 0.05). Considering the results obtained, it can be concluded that “Branca” breed meat is a healthy food characterized by a good general nutritional profile.

Empirical test of the many-wrongs hypothesis reveals weighted averaging of individual routes in pigeon flocks

SummaryThe ‘many-wrongs hypothesis’ predicts that groups improve their decision-making performance by aggregating members’ diverse opinions. Although this has been considered one of the major benefits of collective movement and migration, whether and how multiple inputs are in fact aggregated for superior directional accuracy has not been empirically verified in non-human animals. Here we showed that larger homing pigeon flocks had significantly more efficient (i.e. shorter) homing routes than smaller flocks, consistent with previous findings and with the predictions of the many-wrongs hypothesis. However, detailed analysis showed that flock routes were not simply averages of individual routes, but instead that pigeons that more faithfully recapitulated their routes during individual flights had a proportionally greater influence on their flocks’ routes. We discuss the implications of our results for possible mechanisms of collective learning as well as for the definition of leadership in animals solving navigational tasks collectively.

Genetic and antigenic characterization of Brazilian SRLV strains: Natural small ruminant interspecies transmission from mixed herds.

Cross-species transmission events and mixed infection of small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) were studied in seven goats and two sheep from three small ruminant mixed flocks from Northeast and Southeast Brazil. Genetic and antigenic analyses with gag/env genes and ELISA multiepitope SU1/SU5 recombinant antigens were carried out, respectively. The genetic analysis of gag and env sequences showed high viral diversity in both species, MVV-like (subtype A1) and CAEV-like B1 in goats, and CAEV-like (subtype B1) in sheep, revealing SRLV interspecies transmission from sheep to goats and vice versa in Brazilian farms. Two Brazilian caprine lentiviruses were segregated in two new genetic clades based on gag analyses, which suggests a new classification into heterogenic genotype A. Furthermore, goat isolates were grouped into subtype A1 and B1 clusters. Cross-reactive antibodies were detected in goats using ELISA with a recombinant antigen carrying SU1 and SU5 immunodominant epitopes; the results showed anti-CAEV and MVV antibodies in goats and anti-CAEV antibodies in sheep. This result can be associated with the high divergence in the V4 region due to SRLV variability. All results confirm cross-species infection of SRLV in Brazilian mixed herds.

Duck production in India-A review

In India, the contribution of ducks for egg and meat production is next to chicken. There are many advantagesof duck production over chicken. The important available ducks in the country are few exotic breeds and locallyavailable indigenous ducks. Ducks can be reared under intensive, semi-intensive and extensive rearing system.However, in India, ducks are mostly reared in small flock size as subsidiary source of income. The major duck basedintegrated farming system are duck-fish, duck-rice and duck-rice-fish integrated farming system. Feed is the majorfactor in livestock and poultry production system as it accounts about 70-75% of the total cost of production. Tominimize the cost of production, many locally available alternate or unconventional feed ingredients, viz. azolla,cassava, broken rice are used for feeding of ducks. The constraints of duck farming are mainly the unavailability ofsuitable germplasm, scarcity in natural feed resources, drying of natural water bodies, difficulty in the availabilityof vaccines, poor marketing facilities, etc. In India, there is ample scope for duck production to meet egg and meatdemand of the country. Suitable duck breeds or varieties need to be developed for rural backyard duck farming.Comprehensive feeding packages along with scientific management practices for different types of ducks should beformulated for economic production of duck eggs and meat. There is a need for establishment of hatcheries and other infrastructures in rural areas to promote duck farming for sustainable livelihood of the people.

Welfare issues and potential solutions for laying hens in free range and organic production systems: A review based on literature and interviews.

In free-range and organic production systems, hens can make choices according to their needs and desires, which is in accordance with welfare definitions. Nonetheless, health and behavioral problems are also encountered in these systems. The aim of this article was to identify welfare challenges observed in these production systems in the EU and the most promising solutions to overcome these challenges. It is based on a review of published literature and research projects complemented by interviews with experts. We selected EU specific information for welfare problems, however, the selected literature regarding solutions is global. Free range use may increase the risk of infection by some bacteria, viruses and parasites. Preventive methods include avoiding contamination thanks to biosecurity measures and strengthening animals' natural defenses against these diseases which can be based on nutritional means with new diet components such as insect-derived products, probiotics and prebiotics. Phytotherapy and aromatherapy can be used as preventive and curative medicine and vaccines as alternatives to antibiotics and pesticides. Bone quality in pullets and hens prevents keel deviations and is favored by exercise in the outdoor range. Free range use also lead to higher exposure to variable weather conditions and predators, therefore shadow, fences and guard animals can be used to prevent heat stress and predation respectively. Granting a free range provides opportunities for the expression of many behaviors and yet many hens usually stay close to the house. Providing the birds with trees, shelters or attractive plants can increase range use. Small flock sizes, early experiences of enrichment and personality traits have also been found to enhance range use. Severe feather pecking can occur in free range production systems, although flocks using the outdoor area have better plumage than indoors. While many prevention strategies are facilitated in free range systems, the influence of genetics, prenatal and nutritional factors in free range hens still need to be investigated. This review provides information about practices that have been tested or still need to be explored and this information can be used by stakeholders and researchers to help them evaluate the applicability of these solutions for welfare improvement.

Brucellosis in small ruminant: seroprevalence, risk factors, and distribution in the southeast of Algeria.

The impact of brucellosis on public health and economy is unquestionable in developing countries such as the case of Algeria. This study aimed to provide further understanding of epidemiological status of brucellosis in small ruminant flocks in the southeast of Algeria. Therefore, a cross-sectional study was conducted among small ruminant flocks (n = 51) in El Oued district using simple random sampling strategy. The serum samples collected from 612 sheep and goats (sheep = 280, goats = 332) were screened for Brucella antibodies using the Rose Bengal test (RBT) and the indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) in parallel on all the serum samples. The seropositive serum samples of both tests were confirmed with the complement fixation test (CFT). A structured questionnaire regarding animal, herd, and farm management was prepared and completed in parallel to sampling. Association between variables and Brucella spp. seropositivity status of herds was assessed by univariate and multivariate analysis using simple and binary logistic regression. Estimated true herd prevalence was 27.95% (95% CI, 17.18-42.01), and true individual prevalence was 3.98% (95% CI, 2.51-6.03). Seropositive herds were detected in bordering areas and regions with the highest livestock density. Occurrence of abortions in herds (p = 0.03) increased at least five times (5) the odds of being seropositive (OR, 6.25; 95% CI, 1.20-32.46). Poultry presence in farms revealed to be a protective factor (p = 0.01) (OR, 0.11; 95% CI, 0.02-0.61). The high-level seroprevalence quantified in this study in small ruminant flocks reflects the persistent animal infection endemicity and the high risk of human exposure.

Physical Body Deformity Effects on Differential Growth and Body Traits Development in Commercial Broilers

Physical deformities have been a recurrent challenge on broiler production in the tropics. The effect of physical body deformity (PBD) on differential growth of 550 commercial broiler chicks of Ross308 strain from day-old to 56 days were evaluated. Experimental design was completely randomized Design (CRD), while treatment groups were normal birds (NB), crooked neck (CN), twisted Leg (TL) and crooked neck+twisted leg (CN+TL). Data were collected on body weight (BWT, g), drumstick length (DST, cm), wing length (WGL, cm), shank+toe length (STL, cm) and leg length (LEL, cm); and were subjected to General Linear model (GLM), α=0.05, regression and Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) procedures of Statistical Analytical Systems software, SAS® v8 (2008). Physical body deformity depressed broiler growth and development significantly (P<0.05) with small to large effects sizes (ds = -1.40 to 0.70). The differences in latent growth between deformity groups were significant (P<0.05), of practical ( dS>0.5) and large (f 2>0.4) importance from age 35 to 56 days. The CN+TL broiler group was most significantly depressed by physical deformity with linear growth speed of 0.43, and quadratic late growth speed of -0.19. Most adverse impact of the deformity conditions on growth and body development spanned from 35 to 56 days, and could lead to rejection of live birds at maturity and low profitability of small flock enterprises in the tropics.
 Keywords: Commercial broilers, Physical abnormalities, Growth and development, Torticollis, Valgus-varus angulation

Losing a parent in early-life impairs flock size discrimination and lowers oxytocin receptor abundance in a medial amygdala homologueof adult zebra finches.

Experiencing inadequate parental care during early-life diminishes adult social competencies. For example, low parental care impairs adult socio-cognitive abilities (e.g., recognizing familiar conspecifics) and affiliation (e.g., close social proximity); outcomes attributed to diminished medial amygdala nonapeptide functioning in rodents. Whether parental care has effects beyond familiarity, and if siblings have similar effects to parents, is unclear. Here, zebra finches were used to explore if parent and/or sibling number shape adult recognition and preference of small versus large flocks and nonapeptide (oxytocin, vasotocin) receptor expression in an avian homologue of the mammalian medial amygdala. Chicks were raised by single mothers or fathers in small broods or paired parents in small or large broods matched to single parents for chicks per nest or per parent, respectively. Pair-raised birds had preferred flock sizes as adults, but birds raised by single parents had equal preference for either size. Oxytocin receptor expression was lower in birds raised by single parents versus paired parents, but vasotocin receptor levels were unaffected. Such results highlight parents as formative antecedents of their offspring's social competencies related to group size preference and their nonapeptide mechanisms, outcomes that influence an animal's ability to live in social groups.

Vision and vocal communication guide three-dimensional spatial coordination of zebra finches during wind-tunnel flights

Animal collective motion is a natural phenomenon readily observable in various taxa. Although theoretical models can predict the macroscopic pattern of group movements based on the relative spatial position of group members, it is poorly understood how group members exchange directional information, which enables the spatial coordination between individuals during collective motion. To test if vocalizations emitted during flocking flight are used by birds to transmit directional information between group members, we recorded vocal behaviour, head orientation and spatial position of each individual in a small flock of zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) flying in a wind tunnel. We found that the finches can use both visual and acoustic cues for three-dimensional flock coordination. When visual information is insufficient, birds can increasingly exploit active vocal communication to avoid collisions with flock mates. Our study furthers the mechanistic understanding of collective motion in birds and highlights the impact interindividual vocal interactions can have on group performances in these animals.

Potential of Livestock Production Systems: Explaining Employability and Milk Productivity Through Multivariate Typology

A study was conducted in four different agro-climatic zones of Maharashtra state in India. The typology was developed with an aim to identify livestock production system, employment generation, and milk productivity oflivestock production system. Multivariate statistical technique, i.e. Cluster analysis (CA) was used to classify groupsof farm households with similar farm characteristics into four homogenous clusters, viz. households possessingsmall landholding, a larger high yielding dairy stock with small goat flock size (37.5%); small landholding with asmall stock of high yielding dairy animal and small goat flock size (39%); large landholding with large high yieldingdairy stock and small flock size (13.5%); small landholding with small high yielding dairy stock and large flock size(10%). It was observed that 47.5% of the respondents had dairy and 31.3% had a goat production system. The totalman-days generated for family labour were high (165.87) for cluster 2 households while, for hired labour, man-daysgenerated were high for cluster 4 households. Milk yield index was significantly high for cluster 3 and cluster 1households. Spearman correlation revealed that independent variables, viz. total SAU, flock size, income from dairyand goat production system positively correlated with milk productivity, employment generation (man-days) andgross annual income. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the integration of dairy and goat farming along with technology adoption significantly influenced the employment generation of small landholders.

Antibacterial treatment for exotic species, backyard ruminants and small flocks: a narrative review highlighting barriers to effective and appropriate antimicrobial treatment

Antimicrobial resistance is a complex One Health issue that exists in both human and veterinary medicine. To mitigate this ever-growing problem, efforts have been made to develop guidelines for appropriate antimicrobial use (AMU) across sectors. In veterinary medicine, there are notable literature gaps for proper AMU in minor species. We conducted a structured narrative review covering the years of July 2006 – July 2021 to find antimicrobial treatments for common bacterial infections in exotic (birds, rodents, reptiles, and others), small flock (chickens, turkeys, and other fowl), and backyard small ruminant (sheep and goats) species. We retrieved a total of 4728 articles, of which 21 articles met the criteria for our review. Studies were grouped according to species, syndrome, and body system affected. Other data extracted included the bacterial pathogen(s), treatment (active ingredient), and geographical origin. Body systems reported included: intra-oral (n = 4), gastrointestinal (n = 1), respiratory (n = 2), reproductive (n = 1), skin (n = 3), aural (n = 1), ocular (n = 4), and other/multisystem (n = 5). By species, our search resulted in: rabbit (n = 5), rat (n = 2), guinea pig (n = 1), chinchilla (n = 1), guinea pig and chinchilla (n = 1), avian species (n = 1), psittacine birds (n = 2), loris and lorikeets (n = 1), turtles (n = 2), lizards (n = 1), goats (n = 2) and sheep (n = 2). The results of our findings identified a distinct gap in consistent antimicrobial treatment information for commonly encountered bacterial conditions within these species. There is a persisting need for clinical trials that focus on antibacterial treatment to strengthen the evidence base for AMU within exotic, small flock, and backyard small ruminant species.

Effectiveness of Anthelmintic Treatments in Small Ruminants in Germany.

Simple SummaryParasitic worms are a major threat to the health and production of sheep and goats worldwide, particularly because many worms have become resistant to commonly applied drugs. This problem is well known around the world, but the situation is currently not well studied in Germany. This study was therefore performed to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments against infection with gastrointestinal nematodes. Faecal samples from animal groups were examined before and after treatment, the worm eggs in the feaces were counted, and the reduction in egg excretion following treatment was calculated. Eggs of Haemonchus contortus (barber’s pole worm) were stained to differentiate them from other gastrointestinal nematodes. Treatments were chosen and carried out by farmers together with their local veterinarian. Additional information was collected by questionnaires to check if the treatments were performed correctly. Reduced effectiveness was observed for all available drugs, but some showed better treatment success than others. The barber’s pole worm frequently survived treatments by most products. The high percentage of treatment failures is highly concerning, and it is necessary to develop and/or apply alternative methods of worm control to prevent the deterioration of this situation.Widespread anthelmintic resistance is a concern for small ruminant health and production worldwide. The current situation regarding anthelmintic efficacy is, however, not very well studied in Germany. Thus, a nationwide field study was undertaken to assess the effectiveness of 253 treatments performed in 223 small ruminant flocks by faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) using pooled samples and a modified McMaster method. The percentage of Haemonchus contortus and non-Haemonchus eggs was determined by fluorescence microscopy following peanut agglutinin–fluorescein isothiocyanate staining. Treatments were chosen and performed by farmers together with their local veterinarian, and potentially confounding factors for FECRT results were addressed as far as possible by rigorous inclusion criteria. Reduced effectiveness was observed for treatments with all examined anthelmintic classes, but treatments with benzimidazoles and moxidectin showed significantly poorer results than monepantel, a closantel and mebendazole combination, and levamisole. Low case numbers precluded reliable assessment of avermectins. Unsuccessful treatments were frequently associated with the survival of H. contortus, but this was also observed for non-Haemonchus genera. The results are highly concerning, and sustainable approaches to parasite control are urgently needed to prevent further deterioration of this situation.

Using Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Devices to Show a Limited Effect of Boldness and Fearfulness on Social Proximity in Sheep Grazing at Pasture

Sheep are gregarious animals that can form close inter-individual relationships. Social bonds are affected by environmental and within-animal factors, but there is limited understanding of individual factors that influence social relationships, in part due to the challenges of accurately measuring individual social proximity within a group. This study used geospatially precise RTK-GNSS localization devices (Real-Time-Kinematic Global Navigation Satellite System) to evaluate social proximity between individuals with different personality traits in small sheep flocks. First, unsupervised clustering algorithms were used to categorize 78 individual Merino sheep (from a research flock of 108 grazed together for 11 months prior) based on their behavior measured in four behavioral tests: arena, novel object, flight speed, and isolation box. Sixty-five sheep were then categorized into five cohorts of 13 individuals each (clustered into three bold, six bold/fearful, and four fearful animals per cohort). Bold/fearful animals were bold toward a novel object but fearful of a human. Sheep within a single cohort were released into a 0.70 Ha test paddock with RTK-GNSS devices attached to their backs for 3 days to monitor relative positions. All cohorts were tested sequentially over a 5-week period. Social network analyses of GNSS locational data with a distance threshold of up to 30 m for all cohorts together showed no significant effect of personality traits (P= 0.11). There were, however, some significant but inconsistent differences in distances based on personality traits within separate cohorts [i.e., cohorts 1, 3, 4 (P≤ 0.02), cohorts 2, 5 (P≥ 0.44)]. When GNSS locational data were analyzed with a distance threshold of up to 2 m (day 2 excluded from all cohorts due to missing values), there was a significant effect of personality traits (P= 0.01) across all cohorts combined. The bold animals showed greater distances from each other relative to their distances from fearful or bold/fearful individuals. Additionally, regardless of personality traits, the average distance between animals decreased 2.2 m over the 3 test days. Social interactions in sheep flocks may be influenced by personality traits of fearfulness and boldness, but further research with larger numbers of sheep across varying environments is needed.

Biochemical, microbiological, and structural evaluations to early detect age gelation of milk caused by proteolytic activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens

Heat–stable peptidase AprX, released by Pseudomonas species in raw milk during cold storage, can cause gelation of UHT milk since it is able to split caseinomacropeptides (CMPtot) from κ-casein, so inducing aggregation of casein micelles. Identifying raw milk susceptibility to gelation would allow UHT milk manufacturers to select appropriate processing conditions or give the milk a different destination. Two approaches, i.e., detection of free CMPtot and evidence of casein aggregates, were evaluated as possible indicators for early detecting milk destabilization. With this aim, microfiltered milk was inoculated with a P. fluorescence strain and incubated at either 4 or 25 °C. The presence of CMPtot was detected using capillary electrophoresis after 96 and 24 h at the two temperatures, respectively, when milk also became heat unstable and small flocks of protein appeared. Confocal laser scanning microscopy evidenced initial aggregates of casein micelles after 48 and 24 h at 4 and 25 °C, respectively. Keeping the milk at 25 °C/24 h could be a useful condition to accelerate milk destabilization. Despite the similar timing of instability detection, presence of CMPtot was the only trait specific for AprX activity.

Seroprevalence and antibiotic sensitivity of Salmonella spp. in commercial layer chicken of Pirojpur district

Background: Salmonellosis is one of the most important diseases of poultry that seriously impedes the development of the poultry industry. The study was investigated to determine the seroprevalence and antibiotic sensitivity of Salmonella spp. in commercial layer chicken at study area. Methods: The study was conducted from June 2020 to July 2020. For seroprevalence study, a total of 200 serum samples were randomly collected from 20 layer farms at Nesarabad Upazila of Pirojpur district, Bangladesh. The Salmonella spp. were isolated and identified by conventional methods like culture, Gram’s staining and biochemical test. The risk factors for salmonellosis in layer birds were identified by multivariable logistic regression analysis. Results: The overall seroprevalence of salmonellosis in layer chicken was 58% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 50.8; 64.8). The seroprevalence was significantly higher (71.25%) in > 50 weeks age (Odd ratio [OR]=4.5; 95% CI: 1.94; 10.3) than that of > 15-30 weeks age (37.5%). In addition, the seroprevalence of salmonella infection was also significantly higher (74%) in medium (OR=2.3 ;95% CI: 1.1; 4.7) and large flocks (OR=4.7; 95% CI: 1.9; 11.3) compared to small flocks. The Salmonella spp. was found to be distributed in 68.75% liver, 25% spleen, and 18.75% intestinal swab. Antibiogram study showed that 63.64% of Salmonella spp. was multidrug resistance (MDR). Salmonella isolates were most resistant to oxytetracycline (90.91%) followed by amoxicillin (81.82%) and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (63.64%); but the isolates were most sensitive to ceftriaxone (100%) followed by gentamicin (81.82%), ciprofloxacin (72.73%) and streptomycin (63.64%). Conclusions: The seroprevalence of salmonellosis in the layer bird of the study area seems to be very high. Aged layer birds of medium and large flocks should be targeted for future control and surveillance program. Antibiogram guided treatment may help prevent treatment failure and development of antimicrobial resistance