Small Family Norm Research Articles

A demographer’s urban village: Testing demographic transition theory, Delhi 1950–1970

Neo-Malthusian population planning that links high fertility rate to poverty has been an area that has spawned vast and rich scholarship. In the Indian context, scholars have drawn continuities from late colonial birth control advocacy to the targeted sterilizations in 1975–1977. However, the different iterations of demographic transition theory in the 1950s–1970s are subsumed within a unilinear reading of underdevelopment during the Cold War. This article — the first detailed study of the demographer Dr S. N. Agarwala — shows how demographic transition theory was tested in his survey of fertility in a peri-urban area in Delhi. With this stress on local geographies, I contribute to the scholarship on how non-western experts negotiated the central axes of the Cold War. Experts like Agarwala negotiated transnational discourses of developmental modernity, translating them for local contexts, such as villages in peripheral Delhi. The study revealed the limits of developmental modernity, in the way this vision centered on births and reproductive capacities in solving historical and systemic inequities. In the paternalistic solutions that Agarwala proposed from the findings of his study, we find an alternate reading of the Indian population control program: one that did not rest on sterilizations as the dominant mode of achieving the small family norm.

Study on Determinants of Contraceptive Use: A Community Based Study in Eligible Couples


 
 Background: family planning methods are influenced by a variety of interrelated factors such as age at marriage, education, economic status, religion, number of living children, knowledge about contraceptives, availability, accessibilityand quality of services In spite of many programmes, couples are not aware of contraceptive methods even though they are wish to follow small family norm and still there is a gap between knowledge, attitude and practice. In a developing country like India, despite widely available contraception methods, still there is poor acceptance due to ignorance or fearof complications using them.
 Methodology: The present cross sectional study was conducted at PHC, field practice area of Department of community medicine, Jawahar Lal Nehru medical college and Hospital Bhagalpur. Study duration of two years. According to DLHS-3 prevalence of contraceptive acceptance in Bihar state was 63.2%. Sample size is calculated by taking prevalence rate of contraceptive use (63.2%) at 5% significance level and 10% allowable error. There are 28 anganawadi centers in ourstudy area. A list of eligible couples was obtained from each anganawadi and 10 eligible couples was selected randomly by Stratified Random Sampling.
 Results; The total prevalence of contraceptive use in the study area was 58.6%. It was found that practice of family planning methods was high among Hindu (87.2%) compared to Muslims (12.8%). It has been found that 40% of study population was from nuclear family. Forty six percent of the acceptors of contraceptives were held from nuclear family ascompared to 32% from joint family. 
 Conclusion: The Female literacy rate is exceptionally higher than national average. Early marriage is a prominent featurein the study area. Different factors namely age at marriage, type of family, number of living children, literacy status of female partner, and socioeconomic status significantly affect contraceptive behaviour of the studypopulation. 
 
 
 Keywords: Eligible couple, contraception, sterilization.

HEALTH AND HYGIENE RELATED PROBLEMS AMONG SLUM WOMEN

Slums are the areas of substandard housing conditions within a city .The United Nations defines the slum as ... a building, group of buildings or area characterized by overcrowding, deterioration, unsanitary conditions or absence of facilities or amenities which, because of these conditions or any of them in danger, the health, the safety or morals of its inhabitants or the community. Various terms such as 'blighted area', 'deteriorated areas', ' marginal areas', 'transitional areas', 'substandard settlement', 'provisional settlement', 'squatter settlement', 'overnight settlement', 'urban villages' etc. are very loosely used to denote slums. It has been found by number of researchers that due to poor economic and educational status, awareness regarding health and hygiene is found to be very poor among slum dwellers. Slums are very prone to unhygienic and unhealthy conditions because of their socio-ecological settings. Slum areas have been the breeding grounds of epidemics such as cholera, jaundice, hepatic disorder. Infectious diseases like tuberculosis, chest disease like asthma, lung cancer due to excessive use of tobacco, alcohol and spirit are very common. Abject poverty, social and economic deprivations, lack of essential food and nutrients and the unhygienic and contaminated water force them to live on the mercy of nature than on human resources. The water borne diseases like amoebiasis, helmenthiasis, diarrhoea, dysentery, viral hepatitis, and typhoid are very much common among them. Eighty to ninety percent of the slum inhabitants have no access to human waste disposal facilities. These conditions render the surroundings polluted and un conducive for human habitation resulting in environmental degradation. These slum dwellers are also not aware of small family norms. The size of their family is very large. Child marriages are prevalent among them. In spite of hard work by the women in slum, their condition is very bad. They have very low literacy rate and their economic condition is also not good. Most of the slum women get married at the age of 13 to 15 years. But the condition of unmarried girls is also far from satisfactory. They are treated as an unpaid worker who helps in cooking food, cleaning utensils and looking up their young brothers and sisters when the parents go to their work. Socially, these women's are very much deprived and engaged in anti-social work and are the easy victim of unhealthy physical as well as social environment.

Oseltamevir Helps Cure COVID 19, Corona Pandemic Carried by Global Abortion/Contraception, Global Blood/Necrotic Tissue Environmental Pollution; Guaranteed Corona Elimination by Implementing Many Childbirth per Family [Earth Bus Fare/Ticket]; Contraception Reversal; Abolition of Global Contraception [One Child Policy, Small Family Norms], Abortion [Jumping off Cliff to Fly-Marred Science]<br/>—Retrospective Analysis

Over the past one year and three months, 150 out patients with COVID 19 have been treated with early initiation of Oseltamevir 75 mg × 2 [150 mg] twice daily, with azithromycin, cephalosporin [to give atypical bacterial cover, gram positive bacterial cover, respectively] enabling cure. Corona virus pandemic was enabled by global contraception/abortion [non evidence based non medical practice] with its blood/necrotic tissue environmental pollution-documented by rising environmental oestrogen/alpha feto protein/beta human chorionic gonadotropin. Global contraception abortion with its blood, necrotic tissue environmental pollution provides a rich environmental media for Corona virus-a fastidious organism to become pandemic, with recurrent mutations. Guaranteed elimination of this fastidious organism-corona virus [and other microbes like Ebola, Nipah…] by implementing many childbirths per mother [earth bus fare/ticket] as God ordained abolition of global contraception, abortion, one child policy/small family norms [jumping off cliff to fly-marred science] with its blood/necrotic tissue pollution, mandatory reversal of contraception. Steroids are deleterious in any viral infection, being immunosuppressants-secondary mucormycosis, other fungal [less virulent] infections can follow; corona virus itself can mutate, gain virulence, drug resistance; but prior contraception-destroying germ cells, prior abortion [destruction of tissue] in the victim host result in auto-immunity of corresponding gradations including fatal HLH [Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis], cytokine storm, requiring immunomodulation with plasmapheresis, steroids, hydroxychloroquine without much avail. Vaccine is live attenuated virus administered to our tissue, to elicit antibody response to the future viral invasion; inhaled virus elicits autoimmunity of varied gradations, [including fatal HLH] in the victim host, secondary to prior abortions/contraception [varied destruction of tissue, germ cells in the victim host]; similar significant autoimmunity can be invoked in vaccine administered to tissue. Earth Bus Fare/ticket, many child birth per family as God ordained [with no menstrual blood pollution of mothers] leads to ozone generation, with ensuing unfailing monsoon rains, self sustaining ecology, zooming global economy, which increased longevity of life of parents, strengthened Earth’s magnet, absolute strong security preventing unmanned air vehicle robbery, non nuclear robotic war [remote control operations]. Whereas global abortion/contraception [one child policy, small family norms] [jumping off cliff to fly-marred science] with its blood/necrotic tissue environmental pollution results in inevitable emergence, drug resistance, [mutations] virulence of microbes including corona virus, ebola, nipah … inevitable ecological disasters namely-ozone depletion, tsunamis, hail storms, flash floods, tornadoes, oil fire, forest fire, … to name a few; global recession; early demise of contracepted/aborted parents.

Community Based Study on Reproductive Tract Infection in a District of West Bengal – An Appraisal

Background:Reproductive tract infections and sexually transmitted diseases represent a major public health problem in developing countries. As reported from different community based studies conducted in India, the range of self reported morbidity vary from 39- 84%. Majority of the women bear the problems silently without seeking advice and treatment. Objectives: to estimate the prevalence of RTIs morbidity among married women and identify different socio-environmental factors associated with it. Materials & Methods: A Community Based Cross – Sectional study was carried out in Howrah district of West Bengal during May 2009 to August 2009 to reveal the prevalence of Reproductive Tract Infection and its Social correlates. The respondents were 2000 currently married women (15-49yrs) selected by stratified multistage random sampling. House to house visit and data collection was done by faculty members of Community Medicine of different Medical colleges of W.B. using predesigned & pretested schedule. Result: The prevalence of RTI was 9.9% and was higher in 24-29 yrs age group. RTI was indirectly proportional to literacy status. Prevalence of RTI was significantly higher among those who did not use sanitary napkin or clean sundried domestic cloths. The occurrence of RTI was lower among those who used to practice barrier method of Contraception whereas it was higher among Cu-T users. Majority of symptomatic complained about vaginal discharge (44.7%). Conclusion: To prevent RTI morbidities, use of clean sundried domestic cloths, barrier method of contraception and awareness about small family norm are to be recommended through intervention in future.

Exploration of contraceptive awareness and decision making among married women of reproductive age in semi urban area of Tamil Nadu

Background: India was the first country to have launched a National Program for Family Planning in 1952, but still there is no control on population growth. The objective was to assess the knowledge, attitude and practices of contraceptives among married women in semi urban area of Tamil Nadu.Methods: A community based cross sectional study was conducted in a semi urban area of Tamil Nadu. Married women of reproductive age (15-49) were included. Purposive sampling technique was used to select the subjects and self-administered questionnaire was used as study tool.Results: In this study about 91.80% were aware of at least one of the contraceptive methods but only 64.75% women used. The most common reason for using contraception was small family norms (75.89%) and for not using contraception was worried about side effects. The method commonly preferred was sterilisation (63.93%). The process of decision making was done mutually by both husband and wife (76.79%). There is an association existing between the education and awareness.Conclusions: On overall analysis it was found that only 49% are aware of contraception. Thus by proper motivation, counselling and improving facilities at both government and private sector, the unmet needs of contraception can be achieved.

Knowledge, attitude and practices of contraception among urban women in Mangaluru, Karnataka

Background: India with 50% percent of its population in reproductive age group is the second most populous country in the world with an estimated population of 1.37 billion and if measures are not taken; it is likely to rise to 1.68 billion by the year 2050.The answer lies in promoting small family norms by modern contraceptive methods with the proposed goal of 75% coverage by 2030. In the backdrop of above present research was conceived to study, the knowledge, attitude and practices of contraception among urban women in Mangaluru, Karnataka.Methods: Present study is a cross sectional study. A total of 110 urban women were evaluated with the help of a pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaire for the knowledge, attitude and practices on various prevalent contraceptive methods.Results: Though all the participants were found to be aware of available contraceptives, only 57.3% of them had used one or the other method in their life time. The attitude of large majority (82.7%) of study subjects was found to be positive. The most commonly used contraceptive was condom 73.9%, followed by oral pills (39.2%) and Copper -T (23.9%). Desire for male child (30.1%), lack of awareness (15.1%) and fear of side effects (11.3%) were cited as the main barriers to the use of contraceptives.Conclusions: The study brings out the need for health educational strategies to create awareness in the community on family planning and contraceptive methods.

Effect of Gender Preference of Offspring on Contraceptive Use among Married Women in Urban Areas of Belagavi – A Cross Sectional Study

Background: Gender preference has been one of the barrier in the use of contraceptives since ages, it may be either male or female gender preference. Even though this is known fact but still it is not adequately investigated. Objective: To study the association between gender preference and prevalence of contraceptive use in urban areas. Methods: A cross sectional study was conducted in three urban areas of Belagavi. Data was collected using predesigned and pretested questionnaire and analysed using SPSS version 21.0.Results: In this study 47.3% of the women had gender preference, among them 31.3%of the women had preference towards male child and 16.0% of the women had preference towards female child. The gender preference of offspring was significantly (p< 0.001) associated with prevalence of contraceptive use. Conclusion: The findings support the contention that there is still a need to intensify Information Education Communication activities and motivate the population to adopt small family norm by practicing contraception and promote the virtue of gender equality among them.

Effectiveness of community-based intervention on family life education with special emphasis on nutrition among school-going adolescent girls in a village of Andhra Pradesh

Background: Adolescence is the stage at which health behavior is formed. Limited information about family life leaves adolescent girls susceptible to greater risks from sexual abuse, pregnancy, and violence. Objective: The objective of the study was to assess the baseline knowledge regarding family life education with a greater emphasis on nutrition and subsequent change after intervention through family life education by the expert. Materials and Methods: Study design: It is a cross-sectional intervention study (pre and post). Study subject: Adolescent girls from 11 to 16 years were taken. Sample size: The sample size was 206. Sampling method: Lottery method. The pilot study was conducted from July 1, 2013, to August 31, 2013, among 50 adolescent girl students (20% of the sample size) from Zilla Parishad High School, Nidamanuru. Results: Of the 250 study subjects, 20 (8%) were age group of 11–12 years, 190 (76%) were 13–14 years were age group, and 40 (16%) were 15–16 years age group. Knowledge regarding small family norm was improved from 84.40% to 97.20% with educational intervention which is statistically highly significant (P < 0.05). Knowledge regarding increased demand for nutrition and iron during adolescence was improved from 39.20% to 92.40% after educational intervention which is highly statistically significant (P < 0.05). Conclusion: The key to improved quality of life and stable family life lies in better understanding of nutritional, emotional, and physical requirements of life by the adolescent girl which is lacking but can be achieved by creating health awareness among them.

Assessment of need for limiting family after two children: A cross-sectional study from a Northern State of India.

Background:Success of a programme of free-choice participation, like Family Planning Programme, can be envisaged only when focus is on the needs of the people. Although India was the first country to introduce Family Planning Programme, total fertility rate of 2.1 has not yet been achieved, highlighting that the need of limiting family after two children is not yet felt by the people of India. Therefore, the study was undertaken to assess need for limiting family and permanent methods, and factors influencing it among couples with two or more living children.Materials and Methods:A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in rural and urban areas of Haldwani Tehsil, Uttarakhand. Multistage sampling technique was used for selection of study sample. Data were collected using a pretested questionnaire. Statistical analysis was done using Epi Info version 7.2.2.6.Results:Out of 221 women interviewed, only one-third had adopted permanent methods of contraception for limiting family, one-third were using temporary methods, and remaining were not using any contraception. Merely one-third participants were willing to adopt permanent contraception in future. Unmet need for permanent methods was higher among women of younger age, literate woman, and/or husband and joint families. It was lower in women with three or more living children in comparison with women with two children. Unfelt need for limiting the family was 8.6%.Conclusion:Acceptance of permanent methods of contraception was low with temporary methods being equally preferred for limiting family. Unfelt need for limiting still remains in the community despite promotion of small family norm.

My Mother, My Role Model: Mother’s Influence on Women’s Fertility Intention in Indonesia

The literature shows that children born in a large family tend to adopt the same family norm as their parents. This similarity may occur because values, norms, as well as reproductive behaviours are transmitted from parents to their offspring whereby this transmission may determine the fertility rate. For Indonesia, given that the family planning program has successfully halved the fertility rate, yet for the last decade, it remains at 2.6 children per woman. Such phenomenon shows that even though most women have adopted small family norm, but a sizeable share continue to have more than two children. This study aims to examine the effect of mother’s fertility behaviour on woman’s reproductive intention. Ever-married women aged 15-49 years old in 2014 who have information about their biological mother are analysed by using data from Indonesian Family Life Survey. Zero-inflated Poisson regression model is used to estimate the transmission effect. The sample is stratified by parity. The results show that mother’s fertility is not associated with childless woman’s fertility intention, but with higher parity woman. Women with many siblings tend to have more children. This finding supports the presence of intergenerational transmission of family norm in Indonesia.

Knowledge and Practice of Small Family Norm among Married Women in an Urban Area of Tamil Nadu

Introduction: India is the second most populous country in the world having a rapidly growing population. To strike a balance between population growth and resource usage strategies like family planning came into force. People may have different levels of awareness and acceptance of methods of family planning. Research must identify best practices in the program implementation and the awareness levels among the population to propagate it further. Aim: To study the knowledge and practice of adopting small family norms among married women in the urban field practice area of a Medical College (Sree Balaji Medical College and Hospital Bharath University Chennai Tamil Nadu India). Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out in the urban field practice area attached to a medical college in Kancheepuram district. Using simple random sampling method 300 married women of reproductive age was identified. The data were collected using a pretested structured questionnaire containing five questions for assessing the knowledge and nine on practice. Data were analysed using SPSS software version 17.0. Results: It was observed that of 300 married women almost 78% of the women uses contraceptive. Nearly 72% of the mothers said they were aware about the idea of small family norm and about 70% of them informed that they know how small family norm is practiced. Nearly 68% of the mothers said small family norm means a family with 2 or less children. Conclusion: Awareness about small family norm should be enhanced through various strategies under the family welfare programs. More people should be encouraged to embrace family welfare measures in order to control the population. © 2018 Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. All rights reserved.

Lack of Small Family Norms in low Resource Settings

Background: Fertility is determined by many factors, so there are variations in pregnancies, births. Family size varies within, between societies. Socioeconomic status, environment, culture, education, couples’ understanding, every day life play vital roles. Objectives: Present study was done to know sterilization practices by couples of rural, tribal communities of Melghat region Amravati, Maharashtra, India. Materials and methods: Study subjects were 520 married women of 20-35 years. If non pregnant then with one or more births, at least one live child. If pregnant then with second pregnancy onwards, willing to give consent for providing desired information as per predesigned, pretested questionnaire in local language. Results: Of 520 women, 198 had one live child, no one had sterilization. There was hardly any birth spacing/planning, except occasional use of condom by educated, very few. Of 322 women with 2 or more live children, only 77 (26%) had sterilization, no vasectomy. Two hundred women had 2 live children, 43 (21.5%) of them had sterilization, 122 had >2 live children, only 34 (28%) had sterilization. Only 17 (13.9%) of 122 women had sterilization with 1 male and 1 female child, none with no male child, irrespective of number of female children, Mostly women had sterilization after 3 male children, 60 of 77 (77.92%) had sterilization after 2 or more male children. Conclusion: Fertility was high creating more problems for tribal communities with extremely low resources. Only women underwent sterilization. Not only son was essential, there was desire of more than 2 male children. It is essential to create awareness about advantages of small families for health, social, economic aspects and about gender equity.

SMALL FAMILY NORMS AND FAMILY WELL-BEING IN INDONESIA, 2006-2014.

This study examines the consequences of the universalization of small family norms in Indonesia for family well-being over the past decade (2006-2014) using contrasting views of Malthusian theory. Data came from Indonesia's 2006-2014 Socio-Economic Survey (Susenas) conducted by Indonesia's Bureau of Statistics and from official statistics. The survey covered 2.3 million households in 483 districts of the country. The findings show a steady small family ratio and an increase in family well-being over this period. A small family was found to be positively associated with high family well-being. The benefits of a small family for family well-being were found to vary between different sub-groups and sub-national levels. The data reveal that improving human capital and increasing access to formal jobs may be among the channels by which small family norms have increased family well-being in Indonesia.

The Unmet Family Planning Needs: Effectiveness of Planned Teaching Program

Introduction: Family planning is a method of thinking and a life style which is chosen voluntarily and according to the attitudes and responsible determination of the couples in order to promote hygiene and convenience of the family. A pre-experimental study was done on existing knowledge deficit regarding use of family planning methods among the women of eligible couples in selected Community Health Centre, Sunder Nagri under St. Stephen’s Hospital, Delhi, with objectives to assess the knowledge of women of eligible couples regarding the use of family planning methods, to plan and implement appropriate interventions to solve and reduce the problem, to assess the effectiveness of planned teaching program and amount of knowledge gained after the intervention and to motivate the women of eligible couples to adopt small family norms. A semi-structured questionnaire tool was developed with the help of experts. The data collection tool selected for study was a structured interview schedule. The study was done on 30 women of reproductive age group, and purposive sampling method was used. Pre-test post-test was done. The study findings revealed that women in areas of Sunder Nagri had incomplete knowledge about the concept of family planning. The results showed that the concept of family planning was not well understood by women as only 33.3% women were aware of how much time gap is required for abortion, 56.6% were aware of time period of starting of oral contraceptive after lactation, only 26.6% were familiar with emergency contraceptive pills, 36.6% had knowledge on maximum durability CuT availability, only 16.6% were having clear concept on male sterilization; others were having myths, 40% were aware of side effects of CuT, 40% were aware of method of protection against STDs, 30% were aware of starting of oral pills on which day of cycle, 16.6% were knowing about administration of emergency contraceptive within 72 hours, 33.3% were aware about CuT replacement duration, 53.3% had knowledge on how to check CuT in place or not, 56.6% were aware of tubectomy, only 6.6% were aware of LAC in contraception, 46.6% knew about ideal gap which should be kept between two children, only 16.6% were aware of time taken for effectiveness after vasectomy, very few had misconception about contraceptive pills. The analysis was done using SPSS version 21 and T-test showed that there was an increase in knowledge of women after conducting the health teaching program, as the p-value was less than 0.005 level of significance

Physiological Health and Wealth Status of Children in Thanjavur Corporation, Tamil Nadu, India-A Geo-Spatial Study

At every stage of life, health is robustly associated with socio-economic status such as income, educational attainment, and occupational prestige. These relationships evidencing that the children from low-income households weigh less at birth, are more likely to be born prematurely, and are increasingly at greater risk for chronic health conditions as they grow. Childhood health is in turn positively related to a number of later outcomes, including skills, scholastic achievement, and adult economic status. In adults, it is also a well-established fact that individuals with higher incomes enjoy better health outcomes. Objectives: 1) To study the socio-economic and demographic profile of the children, 2) To identify the wealth and physiological health conditions of children and 3) To examine the spatial patterns of wealth and physiological characteristics of children in Thanjavur Corporation. Sample : Stratified Random sampling method used for the present study. There are 51 wards, 24 children from each Wards aged between 0 to 6 years, totally 1224 children were selected from Thanjavur Corporation and they are the respondents for the present study. Methodology: This study is based on the measurements of physiological characteristics such as children’s circumference of head, chest and waist hip, length of arm and leg, and their body weight and height. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated dividing weight and height meter square. Wealth index (WI) was also measured (Kuppuswamy. 2003) with reference to respondent’s family monthly income, educational status and occupation. Then the mean values are inserted in to the ArcGIS software and physiological and wealth index maps of children aged less than six years are generated. This spatial variations and relationships are proved by the Pearson Correlation. Conclusion: There is no significant relationship between the variable head circumference, chest circumference and waist-hip circumference with wealth index, but there is a significant relationship with the variable length of leg and arm length with wealth index. Nowadays, small family norms, noon meal scheme, Anganwadi nutrition food programme and parental care are keeping children in well physiological growths.

Of family, futures and fear in a Balinese ward: Some preliminary thoughts toward a new project

The link between family, fear and women’s bodies has a complicated history in Indonesia, tied to both international aid and economic development—as well as, in more recent years, to consumerism and transnational capital. Yet, if the ‘small happy and prosperous family norm’ is now the aspiration of many young Balinese, this was not always the case. Today advertisements for family planning technology encourage women to overcome fears of discomfort and physical side-effects in order to realize ‘the family of their dreams’. But the fears of earlier days were not so easily allayed—incited by stories of infertility, infection and death resulting from use of the IUD. What do older Balinese remember of the early days of the KB program? How does this compare with the aspirations of younger Balinese as they pursue the pleasures of life in a ‘small family’ and experience its anxieties? This article presents preliminary reflections on a new project exploring how Balinese differing in gender, generation and social class talk about and act on their plans for the future. Given its importance for both state bureaucratic and commercial representations of domestic life, the ideal of the patriarchal nuclear family figures centrally in these reflections.

Appraisal of the socio-economic status of fishers among the different sectors in Kerala, south-west coast of India

The present study assessed the levels of literacy, health, income and livelihood security of fisher households across different fisheries sectors in Kerala. Primary data collected across 567 households during January to December, 2011were used for the study. The general trend in Kerala shows that majority of the fisherfolk were of the age group 36-55, with a small family norm and high literacy rate. The marine capture sector has the highest annual income in comparison with other sectors but registered higher indebtedness. While the highest income from non-fishery activity was from labour followed by business, other sectors and agriculture. The study revealed that the fishers spend their major share of income towards food expenditure. Inspite of the income from various sources, majority of the households are swamped with debts which make them to rely on private money lenders for sustaining their living standards. The study is a cross sectoral analysis of the fisher households in Kerala and provides a base for implementing developmental plans for the betterment of the fishing community.

Multilevel Logistic Regression Analysis on Predictors of Women’s Intention to Limit Child-bearing in Rural Ethiopia

The fertility rate of Ethiopia, especially in the rural areas, is unacceptably high. This is leading to negative influence on economic and social development. Thus, understanding those factors that influence the fertility intention of women is important for family planning program purposes and population policy. The main objective of this study was to investigate variability of women’s intentions to limit child-bearing in rural Ethiopia between regions and individually. The source of the data was the 2011 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey. A weighted sub-sample of 10,864 women was drawn from the DHS women's dataset. The multilevel logistic regression was applied to examine the various factors between intention to limit child-bearing and demographic, socio-economic, and cultural characteristics. From a total of 10,864 women 3,230 (29.7 percent) were intending to limit child-bearing while the remaining 7,634 (70.3 percent) did not. The multilevel logistic regression analysis showed that there were substantial variations in desire to limit child-bearing among eight regions in rural Ethiopia. Accordingly, for empty model, the variance is estimated asδ²_uo = 0.521 revealing that there was a significant difference in intention to limit child-bearing across regions. The variance of random intercept is estimated at 0.423; this is due to the inclusion of fixed predictor variables indicating that the additional predictors did not increase the percentage of variance explained by the model. Furthermore, either empty model or random intercept model revealed that there was a significance variation in intention to limit child-bearing across the considered regions. Similarly, results of random coefficient for the selected few predictor variables, showed that the number of living children found to be significant in explaining variations in intention to limit child-bearing across the regions. The overall variance constant term is found to be statistically significant. Family planning programs should focus on women with unmet need, particularly those who want to limit child-bearing; avail more information, education and communication about small family norms and the benefits of family planning to achieve the goals of wanted fertility is needed.

PRECONCEPTION AND PRENATAL DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES ACT 1994 AND ITS MAIN ROLE TO CURB SEX DETERMINATION AND SEX SELECTION

India has a male dominated culture where women are treated like a commodity and slave. Our Indian society gives preference only to the Son not to female because of which girls' child is not heartily welcomed and discrimination against girl child still prevails. Sex selective abortion is one of major issue in recent era in relation to violence against women under which the Ultrasonography machine plays an important role of sex detection. Main cause for sex selection are Patriarchal system, Dowry system, only son who can performs the last rites, lineage and inheritance runs through the male line, the Small family norms , PARAYADHAN, easy access to the Medical facilities and Technology for Sex Selective Abortion. Low literacy rate, low socio-economic condition of women etc. Sex selection and sex determination causes violence, impact on equilibrium of nature, Polyandry, Imbalance between Male-Female populations etc&#x0D; Maharashtra was first State to enact Maharashtra regulation of use of PNDT Act in 1987. The PNDT Act was passed in 1994 Hon. Supreme Court passed an Interim judgment in 2001 for more strict implementation of Act based on PIL filed by CEHAT, MASUM and AdvSabu George PNDT Act amended in 2003 to Pre conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Technique Act (PC-PNDT) Applicable to all Govt/NGO/Private/corporate establishments . Main purpose of Act is to ban the use of sex selection techniques before and after conception and prevent the misuse of prenatal diagnostic techniques for sex selective abortion. Every offence under this Act is cognizable, non-bailable and non-compoundable (Sec 27). Act has made it mandatory to maintain records of every scan done. (Section 29 and Rule 9) Section 5 and Rule 10 (1A).Implementing Authority under the Act is Appropriate Authority (Section 17) has power to search, seize and seal clinics (Section 30). The Act prohibited communication of sex of the foetus by words, signs or in any other manner (Section 5) , advertising sex determination test in any form are liable for punishment (Section 22) .Offence under this Act punishable with imprisonment of years which extend to 5 years and fine up to 10,000 which extend up to 50,000.