Small Car Research Articles

Therapeutic advances in the targeting of ROR1 in hematological cancers

AbstractReceptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are key cell surface receptors involved in cell communication and signal transduction, with great importance in cell growth, differentiation, survival, and metabolism. Dysregulation of RTKs, such as EGFR, VEGFR, HER2 or ROR, could lead to various diseases, particularly cancers. ROR1 has emerged as a promising target in hematological malignancies. The development of ROR1 targeted therapies is continuously growing leading to remarkable novel therapeutical approaches using mAbs, antibody-drug conjugates, several small molecules or CAR T cells which have shown encouraging preclinical results. In the hematological field, mAbs, small molecules, BiTEs or CAR T cell therapies displayed promising outcomes with the clinical trials data encouraging the use of anti-ROR1 therapies. This paper aims to offer a comprehensive analysis of the current landscape of ROR1-targeted therapies in hematological malignancies marking the innovative approaches with promising preclinical and clinical. Offering a better understanding of structural and functional aspects of ROR1 could lead to new perspectives in targeting a wide spectrum of malignancies.

Analysis of static and dynamic characteristics of membrane air springs for small passenger cars

Analysis of static and dynamic characteristics of membrane air springs for small passenger cars

Change in the collision avoidance performance of autonomous emergency braking systems

Objective This study quantifies the change in collision avoidance performance of autonomous emergency braking (AEB) systems for traffic accidents in Japan since 2015. Method This study used data on Japanese traffic accidents compiled by Japan’s National Police Agency. The data included only accidents involving loss of or injury to human life; accidents involving only property damage were excluded. We restricted our analysis to collisions between two 4-wheel vehicles and considered only collisions for which we could determine whether the primary party’s car was equipped with an AEB system. Both Poisson and negative binomial mixed-effects regression analyses were conducted using the data for 2021 and 2022 to measure the collision avoidance performance of first registered cars in 2015 to 2020 equipped with AEB systems compared with cars without AEB systems first registered in 2015. Collision avoidance performance was measured for 2 types of intervehicle collisions: rear-end collisions and right-turn collisions. Collision avoidance performance for rear-end collisions was also measured for each of the 3 car types—Standard, small, and light cars. Results The collision reduction rate for rear-end collisions increases with the year of first registration and for cars equipped with AEB systems first registered in 2020 compared with non-AEB-equipped cars first registered in 2015 is 69.2% (95% confidence interval [CI] 67.0%–71.1%), indicating that the performance of AEB systems has dramatically improved in terms of preventing rear-end collisions. For right-turn collisions, the rate increased to 20.4% (95% CI 5.9%–32.6%) for cars equipped with AEB systems first registered in 2019. However, no clear trend is observed. Conclusions This study evaluated a time series of the collision reduction performance of AEB systems using an original methodology. Japan’s New Car Assessment Program (JNCAP) has included AEB’s effectiveness in reducing damage from traffic collisions as an evaluation item since FY2014. The results could demonstrate the effectiveness of JNCAP.

Conversion of a small size passenger car to hydrogen fueling: simulation of full load performance

Abstract Hydrogen offers a valid choice when considering zero emissions transport. This alternative fuel is well suited for spark ignition (SI) engines and it can be implemented with relatively minor changes in terms of added components. Initial evaluations of feasibility with respect to available space for the fuel tank revealed that it is possible to convert a small size passenger car to hydrogen fueling and maintain a range comparable to the fully electric alternative. Peak power assessment showed that additional boosting was required compared to gasoline operation, close to the limit of compressor surge. As a result, the present study extended the engine speed range so as to evaluate full load performance levels that can be obtained when using hydrogen. 0D/1D simulation was applied for simulating power unit output as well as related control parameters. A dedicated laminar flame speed sub-model was implemented for including fuel chemistry effects. Predicted combustion phasing showed the required changes in ignition timing when switching fuels and revealed that the engine could be operated close to stoichiometry when using hydrogen. A reduction of torque was calculated at low engine speed, even if peak power ratings were practically the same as with gasoline fueling.

Analysis of Customer Preference towards Small Cars at Lakshmi Hyundai with Reference to Hyderebad City

Analysis of Customer Preference towards Small Cars at Lakshmi Hyundai with Reference to Hyderebad City

Research on finite element simulation and full-scale-vehicle crash test of B750HL bridge barrier

How to raise the bridge barrier with a concrete base height of only 51 cm to SS level of protection is not yet studied. In order to effectively retrofit an existing concrete barrier design to meet new crash testing criteria, the structural dimensions and concrete strength of the existing bridge barrier were investigated, and finite element simulation analysis was carried out, and simulation suggested the existing barrier was insufficient. Based on the structural dimension design principles of bridge barriers, the existing structure of bridge barrier was designed after adding lightweight and high-strength B750HL material crossbeams and posts on top of the concrete base, and the bearing capacity of the bridge barrier was calculated based on the yield line theory. Then, a finite element simulation analysis model was established to study and analyze the blocking, guiding, and cushioning functions of the improved design of bridge barrier. Finally, full-scale-vehicle crash tests were conducted with the SS-level small car, bus, and tractor-van trailer for this bridge barrier design scheme. This paper is the world’s first to use B750HL steel as the material for the crossbeam and post of a bridge barrier with a concrete base height of only 51 cm. According to the research results, the B750HL bridge barrier, which was designed based on the calculation of structural dimension design and yield line theory, effectively reduces the increased constant load on the bridge deck caused by the extra crossbeams and posts. At the same time, it can reduce material costs and save engineering costs. After being verified by finite element simulation crash tests and full-scale-vehicle crash tests, the protective capacity of the B750HL bridge barrier was proven to meet the SS-level evaluation requirements of the Standard for Safety Performance Evaluation of Highway Barriers (JTG B05-01-2013). The research findings of this paper is that the finite element simulation crash tests can effectively simulate full-scale-vehicle crash test, and the finite element simulation crash tests is reliable. If the safety performance of the barrier in the finite element simulation crash tests meets the requirements, the probability of passing the full-scale-vehicle crash test is higher. Therefore, a design scheme is proposed for the B750HL bridge barrier to improve hybrid bridge barriers at a height of 51 cm or more based on various design methods.

Personalization of the Car-Sharing Fleet Selected for Commuting to Work or for Educational Purposes—An Opportunity to Increase the Attractiveness of Systems in Smart Cities

Car-sharing services, which provide short-term vehicle rentals in urban centers, are rapidly expanding globally but also face numerous challenges. A significant challenge is the effective management of fleet selection to meet user expectations. Addressing this challenge, as well as methodological and literature gaps, the objective of this article is to present an original methodology that supports the evaluation of the suitability of vehicle fleets used in car-sharing systems and to identify the vehicle features preferred by users necessary for specific types of travel. The proposed methodology, which incorporates elements of transportation system modeling and concurrent analysis, was tested using a real-world case study involving a car-sharing service operator. The research focused on the commuting needs of car-sharing users for work or educational purposes. The study was conducted for a German car-sharing operator in Berlin. The research was carried out from 1 January to 30 June 2022. The findings indicate that the best vehicles for the respondents are large cars representing classes D or E, equipped with a combustion engine with a power of 63 to 149 kW, at least parking sensors, navigation, hands-free, lane assistant, heated seats, and high safety standards as indicated by Euro NCAP ratings, offered at the lowest possible rental price. The results align with market trends in Germany, which focus on the sale of at least medium-sized vehicles. This suggests a limitation of small cars in car-sharing systems, which were ideologically supposed to be a key fleet in those kinds of services. The developed methodology supports both system operators in verifying whether their fleet meets user needs and urban policymakers in effectively managing policies towards car-sharing services, including fleet composition, pricing regulations, and vehicle equipment standards. This work represents a significant step towards enhancing the efficiency of car-sharing services in the context of smart cities, where personalization and optimizing transport are crucial for sustainable development.

Critical radius prediction for small radius curved section of two-lane secondary highways based on speed characteristics

Small radius curved sections of two-lane secondary highways have low technical indicators, complex alignments, and frequent accidents. In order to improve the safety of traffic operation, the article investigates the curved sections of two-lane secondary highways with different radii and obtains the travelling speeds of different vehicle types at different section locations. By studying the trajectory characteristics and speed characteristics of vehicles travelling in curves, the velocity difference ratio, which responds to the continuity of driving speed, was defined. Then, based on this, this paper investigates the vehicle motion law of small radius curved road sections. The results show that the speed change of large cars in small radius curves is similar to a “U" shape, while the speed change of small cars is similar to a “V" shape. The speed adjustments of the larger cars occur mainly within the range of gentle curves, whereas the speed changes of the smaller cars are large throughout the range of curves. There is a significant exponential function relationship between curve radius and 85 % percentile speed, from which the curve radius threshold can be predicted. This provides a basis for engineering construction of curved road sections and optimization of curve design indicators, which greatly improves the traffic safety level of curved road sections.

A STUDY ON CUSTOMER SATISFACTION OF SMALL CARS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MARUTI SUZUKI PVT. LTD GREATER NOIDA

This study delves at the levels of customer satisfaction linked to compact cars, with a specific emphasis on Maruti Suzuki vehicles. In developing economies, little automobiles make up a sizable portion of the market. The varied offerings of market leader Maruti Suzuki meet the demands of a wide range of consumers. In order to gauge client happiness, the study makes use of quantitative and qualitative techniques. Quantitative information is derived from surveys administered to customers who own Maruti Suzuki small cars. The satisfaction levels are measured across various dimensions, including performance, design, comfort, and after-sale care. Nuanced understanding of consumer perceptions and preferences is provided by qualitative insights generated from in-depth interviews and focus groups. Key factors of consumer happiness are revealed by the data, which also identify areas of potential improvement and areas where Maruti Suzuki shines. Customers are most impacted by factors like price, fuel efficiency, reliability, and brand reputation when it comes to their overall pleasure. Also, to help with targeted marketing, the study looks at how demographic and psychographic aspects affect satisfaction levels. Keywords:- Maruti Suzuki, Customer Satisfaction, Greater Noida

Carbon Reduction Impact from Synchronising PrescriptionS (CRISPS): A pilot study

Abstract Introduction Synchronising the dates of patients’ repeat prescriptions can reduce monthly community pharmacy visits or home deliveries, which may improve patients’ adherence to medicines.[1] It should also reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with avoidable travel, but previous research does not appear to have determined the potential size of this reduction. This pilot study therefore attempted to do so using routinely collected data. Aim To estimate potential carbon savings from synchronising repeat medicines for a sample of patients from one community pharmacy. Methods All patients who had prescriptions dispensed four times per month or more from a single medium-sized (approximately 2,500 items dispensed per month) urban community pharmacy in England were identified from the pharmacy’s home delivery application. The threshold of four deliveries per month was selected to increase the likelihood of this frequency being due to asynchronised prescriptions. Data were collected (August 2023) for deliveries in June 2023 as there were no public holidays or events to affect prescription ordering. Data included patients’ postcode, delivery dates, and using the Patient Medication Record, the pharmacist collecting the data determined acute or one-off prescription items, that neither the patients nor the repeat medicines were new, and where deliveries were made to supply medicines owing. The pharmacy was selected because it efficiently managed stock to minimise items owing. The distance that would have been travelled was calculated as if the medicines had been collected from the pharmacy as a dedicated journey to and from the patient’s home address instead of being delivered. The saving in miles and CO2 emitted for different vehicle types was modelled by assuming that for each patient, all deliveries that were not for acute items or medicines owing could have been reduced to a single delivery if prescriptions had been synchronised. UK Government conversion factors were used to calculate CO2 emissions.[2] Results Data were collected for 59 patients, of whom 7 patients had 8 deliveries, 4 had 7 deliveries, 6 had 6 deliveries, 16 had 5 deliveries and 26 had 4 deliveries. The total number of deliveries to these patients was 269 but would have been 80 deliveries if the repeat prescriptions had been synchronised (70% reduction). The distance travelled would have been reduced from 842 miles to 241 miles (71% reduction). This would have resulted in a 71% reduction in CO2 emissions, although the reduction in volume in kilograms of CO2 emitted would have varied (by an estimated 137 Kg CO2 or 51%) depending on whether e.g., a small diesel car was used or a large petrol car (reduction of 133kg versus 270 kg CO2). An average diesel car was estimated to have reduced CO2 emissions by 163 kg. Conclusion The findings demonstrate that potential carbon savings from medicines synchronisation can be modelled from routinely collected data, but with limited accuracy, especially as patients receiving home deliveries may not be representative of all pharmacy users. Challenges remain in how to measure actual carbon savings of prescription synchronisation and overcoming barriers to widespread implementation of clinically appropriate synchronisation.

Performance evaluation of VCR system with pure and various blends of R134a, R1234yf, and R1234ze (E) refrigerants

AbstractThe current small passenger car vapor compression refrigeration systems use high global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants causing the greenhouse gas effect. In the present work, the low GWP of two pure refrigerants, R1234yf and R1234ze (E), and 16 blends of R134a, R1234yf, and R1234ze (E) are analyzed numerically. The experiments were conducted with R134a refrigerant to validate the numerical results. The experiments were conducted at the compressor speed of 600–1500 rpm and the condensing air at 30–40°C, relative humidity of 85%, and velocity of 1–3 m/s. The simulation and experimental results for R134a are deviated by a minimum of 10% and a maximum of 15%. It is found that the latent heat of vaporization of the two refrigerant mixtures with 80% R134a–20% R1234yf and the three refrigerant blends of 50% R134a–10% R1234yf–40% R1234ze (E) are the highest among 16 combinations. The other blends show a moderate difference of latent heat with R134a, but for maximum cooling capacity, the blends with 80% R134a–20% R1234yf and 50% R134a–10% R1234yf–40% R1234ze (E) are found to be more suitable for practical applications.

Comparison of frontal crash compatibility metrics between battery-electric and internal-combustion-engine passenger vehicles

Objective The objective of this study was to determine if there are any emerging issues related to battery-electric vehicles’ (BEVs’) geometry, force distribution, and extra weight that may make them more aggressive partners in front-to-front crashes through comparisons of stiffness metrics derived from crash tests. Methods We examined load cell wall data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s (NHTSA’s) New Car Assessment Program full-width frontal crash test at 56 km/h. Fourteen BEVs, ranging in class from small cars to large SUVs, were compared with 92 internal-combustion-engine (ICE) vehicles, ranging in class from small cars to midsize pickups. We selected vehicles based on the test results available in the NHTSA Vehicle Crash Test Database, and there were no tests of battery-electric (BE) pickups. Data included load-cell-wall force-time histories and longitudinal vehicle acceleration from the body structure. We constructed force-displacement diagrams and calculated static, dynamic, energy-equivalent, and initial front-end-stiffness metrics from load cell wall forces, vehicle acceleration, and static front-end crush measurements for each vehicle. Linear regression models were applied to the metrics for comparison between powertrains. Results BE cars and BE SUVs weighed more than their ICE counterparts, on average 369 kg and 286 kg more, respectively. Initial (200 mm and 400 mm), energy-equivalent and dynamic front-end-stiffness metrics, average height of force, and individual maximum forces, when compared with vehicle shadow, were not statistically different between powertrains. Static stiffness (p = 0.04) and initial stiffness (300 mm; p = 0.05) decreased for BEVs with greater shadow and increased with greater shadow for ICE vehicles. When controlling for vehicle shadow, dynamic crush was greater (p = 0.01), the percentage of center force was lower (p < 0.001), and maximum peak force was higher (p = 0.01) for BEVs compared with ICE vehicles. For the Kia Niro BEV and ICE pair, the 329 kg heavier BEV had a 165 mm longer crush distance, which resulted in lower forces and stiffness metrics compared with the traditional ICE counterpart. Conclusion Overall, this study indicates that current BEVs are not excessively aggressive in terms of stiffness metrics for frontal crash compatibility compared with ICE vehicles.

A numerical study on thickness of rear under-ride protection in case pick-up to semi-trailer full rear impact

In the global supply chain, large trucks, tractors, and semitrailers are essential as the final step in this complex network. However, they have many potential dangers because the gaps from the semi-trailer's floor to the road surface are high, so small cars easily get underride. To solve this issue, some regulations have required the installation of additional protection devices on the front, sides, and rear where these gaps exist, for example, FMVSS 223, 224 of the US, or UNECE R58 of Europe. Using LS-DYNA software and trailer and pick-up models from proven sources to set up a collision simulation, then proceed to change the thickness of the rear underride protection device to assess the effect. The collision was designed with 55.8 km/h of pick-up and a stationary trailer. The effect of change thickness on axial displacement and energy changes is presented. The study results are expected to be helpful for the structural design and safety assessment of various structures including marine vehicles and cars against collisions. Keywords: Rear under-ride, protection device, design, truck, semi-trailer

The influence of seated postures and anthropometry on lap belt fit in vehicle occupants: A 3D computed tomography study

Objective In vehicle frontal collisions, it is crucial that the lap belt is designed to engage with the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) of occupants for a reliable restraint. This study aims to understand the influence of different seated postures on the geometrical relationship of the seat belt and the pelvis for various occupants using 3D upright and supine computed tomography (CT) systems. Methods The 3D shapes of bones and soft tissues around the pelvis were acquired through a CT scan for 30 participants. They were seated in a rigid seat equipped with a lap belt simulating the front seat of a small car, and wore a lap belt in three seated postures: upright, slouched and reclined. Parameters related to the likelihood of submarining occurrences, such as belt-ASIS overlap (an index for assessing the potential engagement of the lap belt with the ASIS) and the belt-pelvis angle (the difference between the belt angle and the normal direction of the anterior edge of the ilium) were compared. Results It was observed that the pelvis angle tilted rearward as the hip point was positioned forward and seatback angle increased. This can be seen in the slouched and reclined posture. The belt-pelvis angle was comparable between the slouched and the reclined postures, and was closer to zero (indicating that the lap belt path is closer to perpendicular to the anterior edge of the ilium) compared to the upright posture. In contrast, the belt-ASIS overlap increased with an increasing flesh margin of the ASIS and shallower belt angle. This suggests that the belt-pelvis angle is influenced by the seated posture whereas the belt-ASIS overlap is dependent more on an individual’s anthropometry. The plot of belt-pelvis angle and belt-ASIS overlap exhibited significant variability among participants. Conclusions The belt-pelvis angle and the belt-ASIS overlap of individuals will provide valuable information for understanding the current belt-fit location and predicting submarining occurrences for individuals in various postures when designing restraint systems.

Numerical modeling and simulation of cable barriers under vehicular impacts on a sloped median

Cable barriers are flexible barrier systems that are commonly used as median barriers in the United States for their general effectiveness and low installation and maintenance costs. The current cable median barrier (CMB) adopted by the North Carolina Department of Transportation was previously evaluated on flat terrain and found to satisfy the requirements of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 350. Under in-service conditions (i.e., on a sloped median), the current CMB failed to stop small passenger cars in many incidents. The new roadside safety standard, Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware (MASH), recommends that CMBs be tested and/or evaluated on sloped medians. However, conducting full-scale crash tests on sloped median is extremely difficult and few experimental studies exist. In this study, finite element simulations were used to evaluate the performance of the current CMB design on a 6H:1V sloped median under MASH Test Level 3 conditions. To address the issue of vehicle underriding on the current CMB, two retrofit designs were developed and also evaluated on the sloped median. Two MASH compliant vehicles, a 1996 Dodge Neon and a 2006 Ford F250, were used to evaluate all three CMBs from both frontside and backside and with two initial impact points. The MASH exit-box criterion, MASH Evaluation criteria A, D, and F, vehicular responses, exit angles, and residual velocities were used to evaluate the CMB performance for structural adequacy, occupant risk, and post-impact trajectories. The simulation results showed that one of the retrofit designs could improve the CMB performance on a sloped median at MASH Test Level 3 conditions.

Performance and Durability of Next Generation Automotive Membrane Electrode Assemblies in Automotive Short Stacks

The space for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) systems for the application especially in small cars is a limiting factor. Hence, high power density at high current density is required to fulfill the power demand and space requirements of a fuel cell system when installed into a car. Additionally, the fuel cell operation at elevated temperature supports this requirement facilitating smaller cooling systems. Hence, within the EU funded project GAIA (next Generation AutomotIve membrane electrode Assemblies), a consortium of leading OEMs, industrial partners and academic/research partners/organizations/institutions aimed to develop well beyond state of the art membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) for high power application at elevated operating temperature.Therefore, electrocatalysts, membranes, ionomers, gas diffusion and microporous layers were developed with respect to minimizing the resistances by improving their interfaces. The potential of the developed next generation MEAs was determined using automotive short stacks aiming a beginning of life power density of 1.8 W/cm2 at 0.6 V. The durability target was defined with less than 10 % voltage loss of the beginning of life performance after 6000 operating hours (extrapolated from a testing time of 1000 h). For verification of the durability, an automotive drive cycle was adapted from real life driving data and applied for durability determination. This drive cycle contained very challenging operating conditions such as e.g., an applied current density up to 3 A/cm2 and an increased operating temperature of 105 °C at the stack outlet.In this study, the project achievements in performance and durability at high power and high temperature operation of the developed next generation automotive MEAs were demonstrated within automotive short stacks. During the projects progression, the application of a newly developed gas diffusion layer with increased degree of graphitization and a microporous layer with large pore structure significantly increased the performance at high current density. The stability of the catalyst coated membrane (CCM) was drastically increased by a membrane with a PBI-X reinforcement developed within the project, which replaced a standard PTFE reinforcement. Additionally, a new ionomer with increased high temperature stability was implemented that inhibited ionomer migration at high temperatures. The addition of a radical scavenger to the catalyst layer inhibited the destruction of the CCM by radicals as observed at high temperature operation with the state-of-the-art material. Finally, besides the improvement of the MEA material properties, the fuel cell operating parameters were optimized in-situ using an automated optimization algorithm to find the optimum operation parameters for the newly designed MEA. This optimization demonstrated a significant contribution to the achievement of the performance and durability target as it allowed the operation of the developed MEA at its “sweet spot”.

Research on hydraulic braking energy recovery system of heavy vehicles

The carbon emission of a heavy-duty diesel vehicle is almost equal to the sum of 100 small cars. In the global environment where energy conservation and emission reduction are advocated, the pollution caused by heavy vehicles is non-negligible. A hydraulic brake energy recovery and regeneration system can store the braking energy, convert the energy into kinetic energy and output it to the vehicle transmission system when starting or accelerating, thereby reducing energy consumption and achieving the role of energy conservation and emission reduction. Firstly, this paper mainly summarizes several vehicle energy recovery technology schemes and determines the hydraulic braking energy recovery scheme after a comprehensive comparison. Secondly, the overall structure of the hydraulic brake energy recovery and regeneration system is designed, and the working mode is analyzed. Finally, according to the working characteristics of the main components in the system, the mathematical model is established, the key parameters are simulated and studied, and the appropriate selection and matching scheme is provided.

Autoethnography in workplace safety: Revealing the suffering of unintentional first responders in the Canadian trucking industry and beyond

The author presents evocative and analytical autoethnography as a promising qualitative research methodology for application in occupational health and safety (OHS) practice and research, where it is not currently a commonly used technique. Through an autoethnography, the author discusses OHS in the Canadian trucking industry and trauma as a result of witnessing and responding to collisions as a trucker or other unintentional first responder. Using a personal and traumatic experience of witnessing and then providing assistance at a collision involving a freight train and small car, the author attempts to show the reader what a trucker goes through in such a situation for the purpose of revealing these experiences and humanizing OHS data. The use of autoethnography in this way is presented as an additional and relatively new tool for OHS researchers and practitioners as a way to address, with their OHS management systems, the psychosocial hazards staff may face that may be unknown to the employer for cultural reasons within the trucking industry. The role of employers in addressing psychosocial hazards is explored and autoethnography is positioned as a tool employers may use in expanding their safety management systems into the area of psychosocial hazard mitigation, all within a Canadian trucking OHS context but with applications beyond the trucking industry.

Extrusion and characterization of recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) filaments compounded with chain extender and impact modifiers for material-extrusion additive manufacturing

The continuous growth of annual production and consumption of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is coined with increasing waste that leaks into the environment, landfills and oceans as microplastics and nano plastics fragments. Upcycling the recycled PET to make a feedstock for the fast-growing material-extrusion additive manufacturing (MEX-AM) technology can contribute to the solution and supports the concept of sustainable materials. In this work, extrudable filaments comprising recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) with low-cost additives, such as pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) as a chain extender, styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene terpolymer functionalized with maleic anhydride (SEBS-g-MA), a thermal modifier and toughening agent, ethylene-ethyl acrylate-glycidyl methacrylate terpolymer (E-EA-GMA), a functional reactive elastomeric impact modifier and ethylene-ethyl-acrylate (EEA), a non-reactive elastomeric impact modifier, have been fabricated using the twin-screw extruder. The optimum extrusion process parameters for producing uniform filaments of different rPET compounded formulations have been identified, this includes the extrusion die temperature of 280 °C and the screw speed of 150 ± 3 rpm. The compounded filaments are then printed into standard ASTM test specimens for thermal characterization and mechanical characterization, including glass transition and melting temperatures, crystallinity and crystallization temperature, tensile strength, tensile modulus, ductility, flexural strength, and Izod impact energy. Furthermore, the melt flow index for the filaments was measured. More significantly, the experimental data showed that compounding rPET with such additives in the reactive twin-screw extrusion process results in uniform filaments that display advantageous thermal and mechanical properties and can be used as a feedstock in the MEX-AM technology. This study suggests that compounding the recycled PET pellets with low-cost additives while extruding them into filaments for MEX-AM offers excellent potential to make high-value-added customized products from a sustainable polymer feedstock, such as prototyping, tooling, testing components or end-use internal components for small machines and cars.

Energy Analysis of a Novel Turbo-Compound System for Mild Hybridization of a Gasoline Engine

Efficient and low-polluting mobility is a major demand in all countries. Hybrid electric vehicles have already shown to be suitable to respond to this need, being a reliable alternative to conventional cars, at least in urban environments. Nevertheless, such vehicles present a yet unexplored potential. In this paper, we will investigate how the powertrain efficiency may possibly benefit, in an integrated drivetrain for a hybrid electric vehicle, based on a turbocharged gasoline engine, of an innovative supercharging system. The compressor and turbine will be mechanically decoupled so as to independently optimize their operation, avoiding turbo lag and maximizing energy recovery by completely eliminating the waste-gate valve. This, in turns, requires changing the turbine so as to have a flattest possible efficiency/load curve. Therefore, an ad-hoc designed turbine will be implemented in the decoupled configuration, to be used to drive an electrical generator and produce electrical energy for charging the battery. This study presents a preliminary assessment of the potential of a turbo-compounded system for a 1L turbocharged gasoline engine for a small city car. To this aim, a one-dimensional dynamic model of the engine has been built in GT-Suite and has been calibrated and validated by means of experimental data obtained on a dynamometer, both in steady state and dynamic conditions. In particular, the model has been calibrated by means of experimental data obtained in stationary conditions and its robustness has then been verified through experimental data obtained under transient conditions. The model also includes data retrieved from the characterization of the existing turbine and compressor, while a new performance map for the turbine has been designed to better exploit the potential of the components’ decoupling. Results include the estimation of energy recovery potential of such a solution. Under the implementation of a straightforward control strategy, which runs both compressor and turbine at the same speed, the system is able to achieve a 60.57% increase in energy recovered from the exhaust gasses in the turbine. Afterwards, an attempt was made to limit the minimum turbine speed to 45000 rpm and simultaneously decrease the instantaneous speed by 3000 rpm compared to the compressor, attaining a further increase of 1.7% in the energy recovered by the turbine.