Small Bones Research Articles

Biplanar Videoradiography Dataset for Model-based Pose Estimation Development and New User Training.

Measuring the motion of the small foot bones is critical for understanding pathological loss of function. Biplanar videoradiography is well-suited to measure in vivo bone motion, but challenges arise when estimating the rotation and translation (pose) of each bone. The bone's pose is typically estimated with marker- or model-based methods. Marker-based methods are highly accurate but uncommon in vivo due to their invasiveness. Model-based methods are more common but are currently less accurate as they rely on user input and lab-specific algorithms. This work presents a rare in vivo dataset of the calcaneus, talus, and tibia poses, as measured with marker-based methods during running and hopping. A method is included to train users to improve their initial guesses into model-based pose estimation software, using marker-based visual feedback. New operators were able to estimate bone poses within 2° of rotation and 1 mm of translation of the marker-based pose, similar to an expert user of the model-based software, and representing a substantial improvement over previously reported inter-operator variability. Further, this dataset can be used to validate other model-based pose estimation software. Ultimately, sharing this dataset will improve the speed and accuracy with which users can measure bone poses from biplanar videoradiography.

A retrospective observational study of osteoporosis management after a fragility fracture in primary care

SummaryIn many countries, osteoporosis is predominantly managed by primary care physicians; however, management after a fragility fracture has not been widely investigated. We describe osteoporosis care gaps in a real-world patient cohort. Our findings help inform initiatives to identify and overcome obstacles to effective management of patients after fragility fracture.PurposeA fragility fracture is a major risk factor for subsequent fracture in adults aged ≥ 50 years. This retrospective observational study aimed to characterize post-fracture management in Canadian primary care.MethodsA total of 778 patients with an index fragility fracture (low-trauma, excluding small bones) occurring between 2014 and 2016 were identified from medical records at 76 primary care centers in Canada, with follow-up until January 2018.ResultsOf 778 patients (80.5% female, median age [IQR] 73 [64–80]), 215 were on osteoporosis treatment and 269 had osteoporosis diagnosis recorded prior to their index fracture. The median follow-up was 363 (IQR 91–808) days. Of patients not on osteoporosis treatment at their index fracture, 60.2% (n = 339/563) remained untreated after their index fracture and 62.2% (n = 23/37) continued untreated after their subsequent fracture. After their index fracture, fracture risk assessment (FRAX or CAROC) was not performed in 83.2% (n = 647/778) of patients, and 59.9% (n = 466/778) of patients did not receive bone mineral density testing. Of patients without osteoporosis diagnosis recorded prior to their index date, 61.3% (n = 300/489) remained undiagnosed after their index fracture. At least one subsequent fracture occurred in 11.5% (n = 86/778) of patients.ConclusionIn the primary care setting, fragility fracture infrequently resulted in osteoporosis treatment or fracture risk assessment, even after multiple fragility fractures. These results suggest a fragility fracture is not recognized as a major risk factor for subsequent fracture and its occurrence does not prompt primary care physicians to intervene. These data urge initiatives to identify and overcome obstacles to primary care physicians’ effective management of patients after fragility fractures.

Hand Swelling in an Adolescent.

Hand Swelling in an Adolescent.

Surgically treated open fractures: Study of their characteristics and outcome

Open fractures are a well described entity in the literature of Orthopaedics. However review of literature and patients attending fracture clinics and hospitals around the world indicates that the fracture epidemiology (in general) is changing very quickly [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. The same is true for open fractures as well. Worldwide literature is deficient in determining the changing characteristics, pattern and outcome of open fractures. With the intention of improving our hospital approach towards open fractures, we felt the need to audit our current management and outcome of such injuries. This study was conducted to assess the characteristics and outcome of surgically treated open fractures in our set-up. Aims and Objective: To study the clinical profile and outcome of open fractures treated surgically with reference to general health, limitations of activities, physical health problems and social activities and upper and lower limb involved. Also assess the union (by x-ray) and health of patient at the end of 6 month by SF-36 questionnaire. Methods: This observational prospective cohort study was carried out at the Department of Orthopedics, at a state run 1500 bedded tertiary care hospital attached to post-graduate teaching institute located in central Gujarat, from July, 2019 to November, 2020 with due permission from Institutional Ethics Committee. During this period, 60 patients with open fractures were treated surgically under one unit. This study being a surveillance, all patients included were closely observed for a period of 6 months from the date of presentation, while they were being treated. No study specific alteration was done in the management which was decided on individual merits by the treating surgeon. All subjects were evaluated with respect to the demographic data, history of fracture being treated, presenting symptoms and signs, current management and outcome as outlined in the Performa (see Annexure). The outcome was considered favorable if the fracture united at final follow up and unfavorable if otherwise and also assessed according to SF - 36 questionnaire. Results: Out of 57 fractures in our study, 41 open fractures showed union at final follow up and the remaining 16 ended in non-union. 76% of Open Grade I fractures united at final follow up where as 38.8% of Open Grade II fractures united at final follow up and 90% of Open Grade IIIA fractures united at final follow up. Among OG IIIA fractures 50% of fractures were small bones of Hand and Feet. All those fractures showed full union at final follow up. 33.33% of Open Grade IIIB fractures united at final follow up. In our study all upper limb fractures showed union compared to lower limb fractures of which 60% showed union at final follow up. In our study, Patella fractures showed 60% of non-union at final follow up. Average age of patients was 40 years. Male to female ratio was 4:1. Most patients (66.6%) were from the active phase of their life. Most patients were operated within 5 days of admission. A statistically significant association was seen between grade of open fractures and duration of Hospital stay. As grade of open fracture increased duration of Hospital stay also increased. Tibia was the most common bone fractured (43.85%) followed by Radius-Ulna (15.78%), Small bone of Hand and Feet (14.03%), Femur (12.28%), Patella (8.77%) and Humerus (5.88%). In our study 50% of Open Grade III fractures had complications like infection, failure of fixation and limb length discrepancy. In our study 50% of patients with Open Grade III fractures showed less than 65 score of SF-36 questionnaire at final follow up and 51.16% of patients with Open Grade I & II fractures showed more than 80 score of SF-36 questionnaire at final follow up. However no statistically significant association between score of SF-36 and grade of open fractures was elicited. Conclusion: We justified from our results that we should continue surgical fixation of open fractures as per our Hospital protocol so as to decrease the duration of Hospital stay and improve the outcome in relation to activities of daily living. However, more intensive treatment is advocated for open fractures of lower limb especially the severe variety. Bone grafting as a adjuvant to fracture healing may timely improve the outcome in such fractures.

Role of nuclear factor of activated T cells in chondrogenesis osteogenesis and osteochondroma formation.

Nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFATc) are transcription factors that play a function in the immune response and in osteoclast differentiation. In the present work, we define the function of NFATc2 in chondrogenic and osteogenic cells. Nfatc2loxP/loxP and Nfatc1loxP/loxP;Nfatc2loxP/loxP conditional mice were crossed with Prx1-Cre transgenics to inactivate Nfatc2 singly and with Nfatc1. Femurs and vertebrae were examined by microcomputed tomography (µCT) X-Ray images and histology and analyzed for the presence of osteochondromas. µCT demonstrated that Prx1-Cre;Nfatc2∆/∆ female mice had transient osteopenia and male mice did not have a cancellous or a cortical bone phenotype when compared to control mice. In contrast, the dual inactivation of Nfatc1 and Nfatc2 in Prx1-expressing cells resulted in cancellous osteopenia and small bones at 1month of age in both sexes. Nfatc1;Nfatc2 deleted mice exhibited a ~ 50% decrease in bone volume and connectivity. Total bone area, periosteal and endocortical bone perimeters and femoral length were reduced indicating smaller bones. As the mice matured, the shortening of the femoral length persisted, but the osteopenic phenotype resolved and cancellous femoral bone of 4-month-old Nfatc1;Nfatc2 deleted mice was not different from controls although male mice had vertebral osteopenia. In addition, Nfatc1;Nfatc2 deleted mice displayed distortion of the distal metaphysis and, as they matured, the articular presence of mineralized tumors with the appearance of osteochondromas. Our studies reveal that NFATc1 and NFATc2 are necessary for optimal bone homeostasis and the suppression of osteochondroma formation.

Ancient mitochondrial genomes recovered from small vertebrate bones through minimally destructive DNA extraction: Phylogeography of the New Zealand gecko genus Hoplodactylus.

Methodological and technological improvements are continually revolutionizing the field of ancient DNA. Most ancient DNA extraction methods require the partial (or complete) destruction of finite museum specimens, which disproportionately impacts small or fragmentary subfossil remains, and future analyses. We present a minimally destructive ancient DNA extraction method optimized for small vertebrate remains. We applied this method to detect lost mainland genetic diversity in the large New Zealand diplodactylid gecko genus Hoplodactylus, which is presently restricted to predator-free island and mainland sanctuaries. We present the first mitochondrial genomes for New Zealand diplodactylid geckos, recovered from 19 modern, six historical/archival (1898-2011) and 16 Holocene Hoplodactylus duvaucelii sensu latu specimens, and one modern Woodworthia sp. specimen. No obvious damage was observed in post-extraction micro-computed tomography reconstructions. All "large gecko" specimens examined from extinct populations were found to be conspecific with extant Hoplodactylus species, suggesting their large relative size evolved only once in the New Zealand diplodactylid radiation. Phylogenetic analyses of Hoplodactylus samples recovered two genetically (and morphologically) distinct North and South Island clades, probably corresponding to distinct species. Finer phylogeographical structuring within Hoplodactylus spp. highlighted the impacts of Late Cenozoic biogeographical barriers, including the opening and closure of Pliocene marine straits, fluctuations in the size and suitability of glacial refugia, and eustatic sea-level change. Recent mainland extinction obscured these signals from the modern tissue-derived data. These results highlight the utility of minimally destructive DNA extraction in genomic analyses of less well studied small vertebrate taxa, and the conservation of natural history collections.

Application of malacological analysis to reconstruction of regional and local environmental changes: the Cisowa Skała locality (the Carpathians, southern Poland)

An isolated limestone hill (Cisowa Skała), located in the Podhale Basin in southern Poland, has yielded mollusc shells and small vertebrate bones in deposits filling small karst forms such as rock shelters, characteristic molluscan assemblages can be identified, the succession of which reflects changes in the environment and also microhabitat variations depending on local factors, such as slope exposure and type of vegetation. These local factors markedly affect regional environmental trends determined primarily by climate change and, during the last several hundred years, also by human activity. Such malacological analysis enables effective palaeogeographical reconstructions, both on the scale of geographical regions and for microhabitats.

Multibody Computer Model of the Entire Equine Forelimb Simulates Forces Causing Catastrophic Fractures of the Carpus during a Traditional Race.

Simple SummaryPalios are traditional horseraces held in the main square of few Italian cities. Due to peculiar features of such circuits, adapted to the square architecture and thus characterized by tight curves and unconventional footing surface, horses involved are at particular risk of accidents. Prevention of catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries is a significant issue and matter of debate during these events. In particular, the negotiation of the curves in the city circuits is a significative concern. An experiment was set up to build a model of entire forelimb at the point of failure in the context of a turn comparable to that in a Palio circuit. The model was informed by live data and the output compared to post-mortem findings obtained from a horse that sustained a catastrophic fracture of the carpus during this competition. The objective of this study is to determine the magnitude and distribution of internal forces generated across the carpus under which the catastrophic injury has occurred and describe related post-mortem findings.A catastrophic fracture of the radial carpal bone experienced by a racehorse during a Palio race was analyzed. Computational modelling of the carpal joint at the point of failure informed by live data was generated using a multibody code for dynamics simulation. The circuit design in a turn, the speed of the animal and the surface characteristics were considered in the model. A macroscopic examination of the cartilage, micro-CT and histology were performed on the radio-carpal joint of the limb that sustained the fracture. The model predicted the points of contact forces generated at the level of the radio-carpal joint where the fracture occurred. Articular surfaces of the distal radius, together with the proximal articular surface of small carpal bones, exhibited diffuse wear lines, erosions of the articular cartilage and subchondral bone exposure. Even though the data in this study originated from a single fracture and further work will be required to validate this approach, this study highlights the potential correlation between elevated impact forces generated at the level of contact surfaces of the carpal joint during a turn and cartilage breakdown in the absence of pre-existing pathology. Computer modelling resulted in a useful tool to inversely calculate internal forces generated during specific conditions that cannot be reproduced in-vivo because of ethical concerns.

Ontogenetic shift in diet of a large elapid snake is facilitated by allometric change in skull morphology

As snakes are limbless, gape-limited predators, their skull is the main feeding structure involved in prey handling, manipulation and feeding. Ontogenetic changes in prey type and size are likely to be associated with distinct morphological changes in the skull during growth. We investigated ontogenetic variation in diet from stomach contents of 161 Dugite specimens (Pseudonaja affinis, Elapidae) representing the full range of body size for the species, and skull morphology of 46 specimens (range 0.25–1.64 m snout-vent-length; SVL). We hypothesised that changes in prey type throughout postnatal ontogeny would coincide with distinct changes in skull shape. Dugites demonstrate a distinct size-related shift in diet: the smallest individuals ate autotomised reptile tails and reptiles, medium-sized individuals predominantly ate mammals, and the largest individuals had the most diverse diet, including large reptiles. Morphometric analysis revealed that ~40% of the variation in skull shape was associated with body size (SVL). Through ontogeny, skulls changed from a smooth, bulbous cranium with relatively small trophic bones (upper and lower jaws and their attachments), to more rugose bones (as a likely reflection of muscle attachment) and relatively longer trophic bones that would extend gape. Individual shape variation in trophic bone dimensions was greater in larger adults and this likely reflects natural plasticity of individuals feeding on different prey sizes/types. Rather than a distinct morphological shift with diet, the ontogenetic changes were gradual, but positive allometry of individual trophic bones resulted in disproportionate growth of the skull, reflected in increased gape size and mobility of jaw bones in adults to aid the ingestion of larger prey and improve manipulation and processing ability. These results indicate that allometric scaling is an important mechanism by which snakes can change their dietary niche.

Fitcher’s Bird

Fitcher’s Bird Kate Bernheimer (bio) This was the difficult part. I was in a cave and the cave featured bears. The bears, or at least one bear, was assembling small bones to make little dolls, and the bears, or at least one bear, kept herself busy with a small trunk filled with doll costumes. I joined in with the bears. Painstakingly, I mended a pair of tiny overalls for one bear, not for a doll. The fit was unlikely to work for the bear, yet I was determined. I rethreaded the needle with a nice shade of pink. The scene resembled a story I had read more than a hundred times called “Fitcher’s Bird.” It was about a girl whose older sister was mutilated, as in cut into parts. The girl had tried faithfully yet unsuccessfully to rescue her sister before her violent death, and carried her sister’s bones in a rucksack. All over the world. Later the girl reassembled the bones, and the sister came back to life. The story had been retold in wax figures by an American artist. She then photographed the wax figures—that was the artwork, not the wax figures themselves. She was invited by a very glossy magazine to create this story for them, but when she submitted it to them it was rejected for being too dark. What did they expect from her? It is a story about mutilation! I used to show the American artist’s images as part of my performance. However, it turned out that I was horrified by these images. It took me some time to recognize this, but as soon as I recognized this, I removed them. I thought of this in the cave, as I sewed with the bears. And I thought of a place called The Gardens, where I once saw a ballet with a dancing bear in it. I had been invited to perform there that night, and I spent the day in the city with a friend who dragged me all over the place. She had heard of a botanical garden that she said we could easily walk to. Well! It turned out to be two hours away, and besides, it had fallen into great disrepair. All the buildings had broken windows, most of the plants were dead, and the statue of Diana at its entrance deeply disturbed me. I smiled at my friend, of course, throughout our arduous journey, because she was eager to please me. She had joined me for this leg of the tour upon my request. She got lost on our way back to the hotel. It took us four hours to get there. I still made it to The Gardens in time for my performance. Before I was to be on stage, that was when the ballet took place. Dancing bear, [End Page 20] soldier, woman in gown, little boy (an irritant, of course—why must they cast children?) . . . tinkly music . . . white peacock. As the ballet dragged on, I thought about a lot of things, such as, “Are bears prehistoric? When were there bears? Were there bears thousands of years ago, at the time of cave painting? What is the sequence tonight—do I begin with the white dress and lullaby, then move into the swan’s theme, and then, when the neon begins, I do artistic ballet?” Would ballet after ballet be tiresome for the viewers, I wondered. No, it would not. And I rehearsed, in my head, the banter I had been given: “How was your supper tonight? Squash blossoms and pansies? Delectable! You, in the tuxedo with the red lipstick. You look beautiful, babe!” The banter was all wrong, I slowly realized. As the sun slunk down, a melancholy shadow cast over the lawn, which glistened with rain. The banter was entirely too jaunty for this remarkable setting. Too sensible. What I sought was more meaningful. I quickly found the right tone. “Have you seen the chestnut flowers by the Ferris wheel? You must, if you haven’t. Existential. You in the tuxedo, with the red lipstick, you remind me of a Russian bell. Dissonant. Spellbinding. Would you like to be my...

Understanding the Impact of Trampling on Rodent Bones

Experiments based on the premise of uniformitarism are an effective tool to establish patterns of taphonomic processes acting either before, or after, burial. One process that has been extensively investigated experimentally is the impact of trampling to large mammal bones. Since trampling marks caused by sedimentary friction strongly mimic cut marks made by humans using stone tools during butchery, distinguishing the origin of such modifications is especially relevant to the study of human evolution. In contrast, damage resulting from trampling on small mammal fossil bones has received less attention, despite the fact that it may solve interesting problems relating to site formation processes. While it has been observed that the impact of compression depends on the type of substrate and dryness of the skeletal elements, the fragility of small mammal bones may imply that they will break as a response to compression. Here, we have undertaken a controlled experiment using material resistance compression equipment to simulate a preliminary experiment, previously devised by one of us, on human trampling of owl pellets. Our results demonstrate that different patterns of breakage can be distinguished under wet and dry conditions in mandibles, skulls and long bones that deform or break in a consistent way. Further, small compact bones almost always remain intact, resisting breakage under compression. The pattern obtained here was applied to a Pleistocene small mammal fossil assemblage from Wonderwerk Cave (South Africa). This collection showed unusually extensive breakage and skeletal element representation that could not be entirely explained by excavation procedures or digestion by the predator. We propose that trampling was a significant factor in small mammal bone destruction at Wonderwerk Cave, partly the product of trampling caused by the raptor that introduced the microfauna into the cave, as well as by hominins and other terrestrial animals that entered the cave and trampled pellets covering the cave floor.

A survey of the uncinate bone and other poorly known ossicles associated with the lacrimal/ectethmoid complex of the avian skull.

In several taxa of Neornithes (crown group birds), the lacrimal/ectethmoid complex exhibits small bones, the comparative osteology of which is poorly studied. Some of these ossicles-which are commonly known as uncinate bones (ossa uncinata or ossa lacrimopalatina)-were already described two centuries ago, but knowledge of their distribution and morphological variability in higher level clades is incomplete. In the present study, a detailed survey of the occurrence of uncinate bones is given, and these ossicles are for the first time reported in the gruiform Psophiidae, some Rallidae, and in the Otidiformes. Their presence in the latter taxon is of particular interest, because in current molecular analyses, the Otidiformes result as close relatives of the Musophagiformes, in which the uncinate bone is particularly large. The uncinate bones of most other neornithine clades, however, appear to have evolved multiple times independently through parallel evolution from the same ligamentous structures. A few earlier authors assumed that the uncinate bone is homologous to the ectopterygoid of non-avian theropods. Although this remains a viable hypothesis, more data on the occurrence of the ectopterygoid in Mesozoic birds are needed for well-supported conclusions. Here, it is noted that the ontogenetic development of the uncinate bone appears to be correlated with that of the ectethmoid, which is another bone in the skull of neornithine birds that is of unknown origin.

Diagnostic Accuracy of 2-[18F]FDG-PET and whole-body DW-MRI for the detection of bone marrow metastases in children and young adults.

To compare the diagnostic accuracy of 2-[18F]fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose-enhanced positron emission tomography (2-[18F]FDG-PET) and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) for the detection of bone marrow metastases in children and young adults with solid malignancies. In this cross-sectional single-center institutional review board-approved study, we investigated twenty-three children and young adults (mean age, 16.8years ± 5.1 [standard deviation]; age range, 7-25years; 16 males, 7 females) with 925 bone marrow metastases who underwent 66 simultaneous 2-[18F]FDG-PET and DW-MRI scans including 23 baseline scans and 43 follow-up scans after chemotherapy between May 2015 and July 2020. Four reviewers evaluated all foci of bone marrow metastasis on 2-[18F]FDG-PET and DW-MRI to assess concordance and measured the tumor-to-bone marrow contrast. Results were assessed with a one-sample Wilcoxon test and generalized estimation equation. Bone marrow biopsies and follow-up imaging served as the standard of reference. The reviewers detected 884 (884/925, 95.5%) bone marrow metastases on 2-[18F]FDG-PET and 893 (893/925, 96.5%) bone marrow metastases on DW-MRI. We found different "blind spots" for 2-[18F]FDG-PET and MRI: 2-[18F]FDG-PET missed subcentimeter lesions while DW-MRI missed lesions in small bones. Sensitivity and specificity were 91.0% and 100% for 18F-FDG-PET, 89.1% and 100.0% for DW-MRI, and 100.0% and 100.0% for combined modalities, respectively. The diagnostic accuracy of combined 2-[18F]FDG-PET/MRI (100.0%) was significantly higher compared to either 2-[18F]FDG-PET (96.9%, p < 0.001) or DW-MRI (96.3%, p < 0.001). Both 2-[18F]FDG-PET and DW-MRI can miss bone marrow metastases. The combination of both imaging techniques detected significantly more lesions than either technique alone. • DW-MRI and 2-[18F]FDG-PET have different strengths and limitations for the detection of bone marrow metastases in children and young adults with solid tumors. • Both modalities can miss bone marrow metastases, although the "blind spot" of each modality is different. • A combined PET/MR imaging approach will achieve maximum sensitivity and specificity for the detection of bone marrow metastases in children with solid tumors.

Effect of data binning and frame averaging for micro-CT image acquisition on the morphometric outcome of bone repair assessment

Despite the current advances in micro-CT analysis, the influence of some image acquisition parameters on the morphometric assessment outcome have not been fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to determine whether data binning and frame averaging affect the morphometric outcome of bone repair assessment using micro-CT. Four Wistar rats’ tibiae with a surgically created bone defect were imaged with micro-CT six times each, frame averaging set to 1 and 2, and data binning set to 1, 2 and 4, for each of the averaging values. Two-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni tests assessed the significance of frame averaging and data binning on a set of morphometric parameters assessed in the image volumes (p < 0.01). The effect of frame averaging was not significant for any of the assessed parameters. Increased data binning led to larger trabecular thickness. In contrast, smaller bone volume fraction and bone volume were found as data binning increased. Trabeculae number and trabecular separation were not influenced by any of the parameters. In conclusion, the morphometric outcome of bone repair assessment in micro-CT demonstrated dependency upon data binning, but not frame averaging. Therefore, image acquisition of small anatomical structures (e.g., rat trabeculae) should be performed without data binning.

Juxtacortical chondromyxoid fibroma in the small bones: two cases with unusual location and a literature review.

Chondromyxoid fibroma is a rare bone tumor of cartilaginous origin, representing less than 1% of all bone tumors. It preferentially arises in the eccentric location of the metaphysis of a long tubular bone. Juxtacortical locations are reported infrequently in the long bones and even more rarely in short tubular bones, with only three cases documented. Here we present two new cases of juxtacortical chondromyxoid fibroma in the small bones. One was an intracortical osteolytic lesion of the metatarsal bone of the foot with degenerative atypia that histologically should be differentiated from chondrosarcoma. The other was a phalangeal mass protruding into the interphalangeal joint of the hand, which had been labeled mistakenly as a soft tissue mass preoperatively. These cases illustrated that chondromyxoid fibromas have various the manifestations and should be included in the differential diagnosis of an osteolytic lesion or an exophytic mass in the small bones.

Comments on a small sabretooth cat in the Abismo Ponta de Flecha Cave, Vale do Ribeira, southeastern Brazil

Vale do Ribeira, in southeastern Brazil, is known for its many caves that contain osteological material, including remains that have been referred to several extinct species. The sabertooth cat Smilodon populator was a large predator that inhabited South America during the Quaternary. A specimen that is represented in the Abismo Ponta de Flecha Cave by small forelimb bones (metacarpals and phalanges) is commented here. The metacarpals display morphological characteristics of S. populator, but are smaller than those of S. fatalis and larger than those of S. gracilis. This specimen is amongst the smallest ever found specimen of S. populator and is comparable in size to an adult lion.

Comparative morphological study of the male and female metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the dromedary camel with special reference to the blood vasculature.

It is vital to understand the gross anatomy and dimensions of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones in camels in order for veterinarians to identify fraud cases between males and females by carefully distinguishing between them. It is to make comparisons of the morphological characteristics and measurements of the metacarpus and metatarsus bones of male and female camels. Forty metacarpus and metatarsus of adult camels of both sexes were collected from a typical Burydah slaughterhouse in KSA. The bones were treated according to the established methods of boiling, drying, and bleaching to study morphology. The measurement of the bones in this study has been taken by using digital vernier calipers. The metacarpus and metatarsus consisted of two large and two small bones. The large metacarpal and metatarsal bones consisted of fused III and IV. Except for the distal side in which the two bones diverge more from each other. The metacarpal bone is similar to the metatarsus, except that it is smaller in measurement majority. The small Mc-Mt II and Mc-Mt V were smaller and present on the palmo-lateral or planto-lateral aspect of the large bones, respectively. The length of the metacarpus and metatarsus is almost equal nearly in camels unlike the rest of the animals as well as the metacarpus bone was unlike the metatarsus in form and measurements generally. The large metacarpus and metatarsus bones are distinguished by the fusion of the third and fourth bones along the length of the bone. Except for the distal side in which the two bones diverge more from each other like the rest of the animals. The morphologically characterized majority of the metacarpal bone was similar to the metatarsus, except that it was proximal extremity, cross-section, and measurement.

Опыт реконструкции облика человека раннего неолита из погребения могильника Шумилиха (Южное Приангарье)

This paper presents the results of a reconstruction of the appearance of a hunter-gatherer of the Kitoi culture from a burial at the Shumilikha cemetery in the Southern Angara region. The excavations were carried out in 1999. In the grave, the walls of which were coated with clay, the remains of a human 25–35 years old were found. Under the skeleton, which was sprinkled with “ocher” (grated hematite rock), traces of a wooden construction were recorded. The grave goods (more than a hundred items) included such interesting finds as the kernels of fishhooks, a bone spoon, beads made of bone paste, as well as two items made of white jade: a ring and a cylindrical bead. There is a reliable radiocarbon date for the human bone, which, taking into account the correction for the reservoir effect, shows an age of 7,003±106 cal BP and allows you to determine the age of this complex by the Early Neolithic. Modern software for 3D modeling and visualization opens up great opportunities, so a virtual method was chosen to reconstruct the appearance of a human from a burial. First, all the bones of the skeleton were scanned, for which two types of 3D equipment were used: a stationary scanner RangeVision Spectrum based on structured light photogrammetry (for the skull and small bones) and a hybrid handheld scanner with structured LED and infrared illumination Shining 3D Einscan H (for large bones). The scan results are processed in RangeVision's ScanCenter NG using built-in algorithms. Filling voids, smoothing surfaces, simplifying 3D models, and correcting mesh defects are done manually at the stage of model postprocessing. For further work, the resulting models were transferred to the stl format. Facial reconstruction was carried out in Blender and ZBrush in several stages: 1) importing and combining models; 2) modeling of lost teeth and reconstruction of the occlusion; 3) CAD modeling of a set of soft tissue depth markers and their positioning by craniometric points; 4) modeling of auxiliary circuits for nose reconstruction and eyeball setting; 5) modeling of masticatory muscles; 6) modeling of facial muscles and fat sacs to simplify the production of a basic head model; 7) modeling the base mesh of the head; 8) digital sculpting of the head; 9) detailing of the digital sculpture; 10) rendering of the model and preparing the model for printing. As a result, a digital model of the appearance of an Early Neolithic hunter-gatherer from a burial at the Shumilikha cemetery was obtained.

Опыт реконструкции облика человека раннего неолита из погребения могильника Шумилиха (Южное Приангарье)

This paper presents the results of a reconstruction of the appearance of a hunter-gatherer of the Kitoi culture from a burial at the Shumilikha cemetery in the Southern Angara region. The excavations were carried out in 1999. In the grave, the walls of which were coated with clay, the remains of a human 25–35 years old were found. Under the skeleton, which was sprinkled with “ocher” (grated hematite rock), traces of a wooden construction were recorded. The grave goods (more than a hundred items) included such interesting finds as the kernels of fishhooks, a bone spoon, beads made of bone paste, as well as two items made of white jade: a ring and a cylindrical bead. There is a reliable radiocarbon date for the human bone, which, taking into account the correction for the reservoir effect, shows an age of 7,003±106 cal BP and allows you to determine the age of this complex by the Early Neolithic. Modern software for 3D modeling and visualization opens up great opportunities, so a virtual method was chosen to reconstruct the appearance of a human from a burial. First, all the bones of the skeleton were scanned, for which two types of 3D equipment were used: a stationary scanner RangeVision Spectrum based on structured light photogrammetry (for the skull and small bones) and a hybrid handheld scanner with structured LED and infrared illumination Shining 3D Einscan H (for large bones). The scan results are processed in RangeVision's ScanCenter NG using built-in algorithms. Filling voids, smoothing surfaces, simplifying 3D models, and correcting mesh defects are done manually at the stage of model postprocessing. For further work, the resulting models were transferred to the stl format. Facial reconstruction was carried out in Blender and ZBrush in several stages: 1) importing and combining models; 2) modeling of lost teeth and reconstruction of the occlusion; 3) CAD modeling of a set of soft tissue depth markers and their positioning by craniometric points; 4) modeling of auxiliary circuits for nose reconstruction and eyeball setting; 5) modeling of masticatory muscles; 6) modeling of facial muscles and fat sacs to simplify the production of a basic head model; 7) modeling the base mesh of the head; 8) digital sculpting of the head; 9) detailing of the digital sculpture; 10) rendering of the model and preparing the model for printing. As a result, a digital model of the appearance of an Early Neolithic hunter-gatherer from a burial at the Shumilikha cemetery was obtained.

Microscopic Surgical Anatomy of the Stapedius Muscle in Fresh Cadaveric Temporal Bone

Introduction: Stapedius muscle is the smallest bone in the human body and it has an important role for preventing loud noise exposing to the inner ear. This stapedius muscle has also a very significant role during stapes surgery for otosclerosis. Materials and Methods: We studied the microscopic anatomy of the 36-stapedius muscle at our temporal bone dissection laboratory during the period of March 2019 to April 2021. All the 36 fresh temporal bones were dissected with the help of the microdrill, burr, and Zeiss microscope. Details of the stapedius muscle anatomy such as origin, extension, and attachment were studied. Results: The length of the stapedius muscle was ranging from 8 to 11 mm. The tendon of the stapedius muscle was ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 mm. The classical shape of the stapedius muscle was sickle shape. The bulky bell of the stapedius muscle was from 1.5 to 3.5 mm. Discussion and Conclusion: Clear anatomical knowledge of the stapedius muscle is needed for the postgraduates and during learning period of the otologist. If anatomical knowledge is not clear, it may lead to confusion between the stapedius muscle and facial nerve. Awareness regarding microscopic anatomic is required for avoiding the confusion between the facial nerve and stapedius muscle or during the facial nerve grafting.