Small Animal Practitioners Research Articles

Observational Study of Small Animal Practitioners’ Awareness, Clinical Practice and Experience With Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in Dogs

To assess small animal practitioner's awareness of the relatively novel procedure of fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) in dogs and their practices, indications, experience and assessment of outcome of this in canine patients. An anonymous online questionnaire was distributed to practitioners in the UK and around the world, assessing demographics of respondents, their selection criteria for donors, their operating procedures and indications when performing FMT in dogs, as well as the observed outcomes. Analysis of results was descriptive. Data based on 155 responses from 13 different countries, 40% from primary care practices and 60% from referral hospitals, were analyzed. The majority of respondents (71%) had never performed FMT. For the remaining, main indications were chronic enteropathy (64%) and parvovirus infection (21%), followed by other types of acute diarrhea (15%). The most common mode of administration was via enema (79%) or endoscopically (55%), using fresh (76%) or frozen (46%) preparations mixed with saline and/or water, while the amount administered was extremely variable. Median storage time of FMT was 90 days (range 1-180 days). 67% of participants routinely administer FMT more than once. Clinical response was mixed to good, with rare adverse events (n = 4). A total of 25 respondents (21.7%) wanted to start using FMT, while 45 (29%) wanted to continue or increase FMT administration for various gastrointestinal conditions. In conclusion, an administration of FMT to dogs is currently rare amongst small animal practitioners, but generally follow current recommendations. Urgent consensus regarding donor selection and FMT application procedures for dogs is required.

Common veterinary practice in small animal anesthesia - an online survey among small animal practitioners in Europe

Survey concerning the situation of small animal anesthesia in Europe and assessment of the compliance with the guidelines of the AVA (American Society of Anesthesiologists) and the DVG specialty group VAINS (Veterinary Anesthesia, Intensive Care, Emergency Medicine, and Pain Management). A link to an online survey with questions concerning anesthesia management (topics include demographics, equipment, monitoring, thermal management, pre-anesthetic examination, anesthetic protocol, and others) was sent to small animal practitioners in several countries. A total of 767 evaluable questionnaires came from Germany (n = 343), Austria (n = 216), Switzerland (n = 83), the United Kingdom (n = 38), France (n = 25), Hungary (n = 25), Scandinavia (n = 23), and "other countries" (n = 11). On average, 91 % of respondents complied with the AVA guideline and 58 % complied with the VAINS specialty group guideline even before its publication. Practices/clinics with higher staff possessed superior equipment, and practices/clinics performing higher numbers of anesthesias per week were more likely to implement "good preliminary examination." Although the guidelines were found to be implemented to a certain degree, the presented study reveals a potential for optimization of the anesthesia regime in many practices/clinics, e. g. by improving the equipment or allowing for better use of present apparatus.

A Review of Campylobacter Infections in Dogs

Campylobacter spp. are important bacterial enteropathogens that cause diarrhea in dogs with the predominant species being Campylobacter jejuni, C. helveticus, and C. upsaliensis. Although campylobacteriosis is subclinical in many dogs, some may develop moderate to mild enteritis. Puppies, kenneled dogs, and dogs with concurrent conditions are highly susceptible to Campylobacter-associated diarrhea. Diagnosis of suspected Campylobacter-associated diarrhea in dogs poses a challenge to veterinarians as the fecal enteric panels are costly, require technical knowledge, and are time consuming, however molecular approaches for diagnosing the Campylobacter spp. infections are becoming readily available and can help in accurate and fast diagnosis. Campylobacter spp. are amongst the prioritized human and animal pathogens with regards to antimicrobial resistance. The rise and spread of antimicrobial resistance threatens the effective treatment and control of Campylobacter infections. Multi-drug resistance Campylobacter spp. have been isolated from dogs therefore treatment should only be administered where necessary. In conclusion, understanding the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and zoonotic potential of Campylobacter spp. will enable small animal practitioners include them among the differential diagnoses of diarrheic diseases in dogs.

Persepsi Dokter Hewan Praktisi Hewan Kecil terhadap Telemedicine di Masa Pandemi Covid-19


 Telemedicine is defined as remote diagnose and patient care using telecommunications technology. Recently telemedicine technology was introduced to the field of veterinary medicine. Due to the nature of telecommunications, a veterinarian will utilize telemedicine technology as a means of assessing patient severity and providing medical advice. The perception of veterinarians, especially small animal practitioners, to telemedicine is influenced by many factors, for example: age, desire (expectation), attention (focus), information obtained, and other factors. This study aims to determine the factors that influence veterinarians' perceptions of telemedicine. This research is expected to be an input in implementing telemedicine in practice. The design of this study is descriptive method, where the sampling method uses a questionnaire filled out by small animal practitioners online. The results showed that the pandemic had no impact on veterinary services. But there is an adaptation of practice procedure. Respondents are neutral towards the application of telemedicine, but the majority of respondents who have implemented telemedicine think that the application of telemedicine has a good impact on health services. There are many obstacles felt by respondents in implementing telemedicine.

Chronic Otitis in Cats: Clinical management of primary, predisposing and perpetuating factors.

Chronic otitis can be one of the most frustrating diseases to manage for a small animal practitioner. While it occurs less commonly in the cat than the dog, it is no less challenging. The purpose of this review is to discuss the common and uncommon causes of chronic otitis in the cat within the clinical framework used for diagnosis and treatment. The focus is on diseases that affect the ear canal, rather than those restricted to the pinnae. Otitis is multifactorial, which complicates management. A common clinical mistake is to focus solely on treating the infection present. Only by addressing all factors will a clinician successfully control chronic otitis. For the purposes of this review, the authors have adopted the established model of separating primary, predisposing and perpetuating causes of otitis. Primary factors are those that directly cause otitis (inflammation); predisposing factors are those that put the patient at risk for development of otitis; and perpetuating factors are those that result in ongoing clinical signs of otitis or that prevent clinical resolution. This review is aimed at veterinarians who treat cats and particularly those with an interest in feline dermatology and otology. While many practitioners rely on a hand-held otoscope, a video-otoscope can be very helpful for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic otitis. This review presents up-to-date information regarding the diagnosis and treatment of chronic otitis in cats, with emphasis on the most recent peer-reviewed literature.

WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT ALIMENTARY TRACT DUPLICATIONS IN CATS?

O presente trabalho trata-se de uma revisão de escopo de duplicações de trato gastrointestinal em gatos. Os critérios de inclusão foram determinados pela revisão de relatos de caso de duplicações gastrointestinais confirmadas por exame histopatológico, incluindo-se também neste trabalho um caso de um felino diagnosticado com duplicação cística duodenal em nossa instituição. Treze casos de duplicações gastrointestinais foram analisados, sendo que um animal possuía uma duplicação bifocal, totalizando, portanto, quatorze duplicações. As variáveis consideradas foram idade, sexo, raça, sintomatologia, localização anatômica, morfologia, presença de comunicação luminal, progressão para malignidade e recorrência. Aproximadamente 62% (n=8/13) dos gatos afetados apresentavam entre 4 meses a 2 anos de idade. Não foi observada predisposição quanto ao sexo, enquanto raça e sintomatologia variaram. Duplicações duodenais corresponderam a 36% (n=5/14). Duplicações císticas sem comunicação luminal 93% (n=13/14). Uma duplicação evoluiu para neoplasia e a recorrência de duplicações gastrointestinais entre os gatos foi de 15% (n=2/13). Evolução para obstrução, hemorragias e malignidade já foram descritas em humanos e gatos como consequência de duplicações gastrointestinais. Considerando a importância e o desafio diagnóstico desta afecção, conclui-se que o clínico veterinário de pequenos animais deve considerar as duplicações de aparelho digestivo no diagnóstico diferencial de gatos jovens com vômitos crônicos e massas císticas intestinais.

Infection with Dirofilaria immitis and Other Infections in Cats and Dogs from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: The Need for Prophylactic Enforcement.

Dirofilaria immitis, a mosquito-borne nematode that primarily infects dogs, can equally infect cats. Although there have been numerous studies on canine heartworm prevalence in Brazil, there have been few studies on feline infections. Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukemia virus (FeLV) are both life-threatening retroviruses transmitted directly between cats. Infections with Ehrlichia spp. and Anaplasma spp. are highly prevalent among dogs in Brazil, with Rhipicephalus sanguineus being the main vector for both bacteria. This study aimed to gather information on these infections among dogs and cats in the metropolitan area of Rio de Janeiro by performing rapid point-of-care tests for prophylactic enforcement. Surplus samples of serum or plasma from private laboratories were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (SNAP Feline Triple Test or SNAP 4Dx Plus Test). The prevalence of heartworm disease was 7% among dogs and 0.9% among cats, the latter being 12.9% of the former. The prevalence of FIV and FeLV was 4.3 and 11.9%, respectively. Among dogs, the seroprevalence of Ehrlichia spp. and Anaplasma spp. was 27.1 and 9.8%, respectively, and Borrelia burgdorferi was not detected. Given that such infections circulate among pets, prophylactic measures should be encouraged by small animal practitioners.

A survey of attributes of surgical resident applicants deemed important to American College of Veterinary Surgeons board-certified surgeons involved in resident selection and methods used to evaluate these attributes.

To determine which attributes of residency applicants were most commonly assessed by large and small animal American College of Veterinary Surgeons diplomates and to determine which evaluation methods were perceived to assess those attributes. Online survey. American College of Veterinary Surgeons board-certified surgeons as of March 2019. An online survey was sent to eligible individuals. Respondents rated the importance of 23 attributes assessed by the Veterinary Internship and Residency Matching Program (VIRMP) application as well the usefulness of interviews, conversations with people knowledgeable with the applicants, and review of the VIRMP packet for evaluating each of these attributes. Responses were compared between large and small animal practitioners and between individuals involved in residency selection (supervisors) and individuals not involved in residency selection (nonsupervisors). Surveys were completed by 221 individuals (14.6% response rate). Seventeen of the 23 attributes were considered important by most respondents. Grade point average (GPA) and class rank were used as screening tools by 73% and 65% of supervisors, respectively. Letters of reference (LOR) were ranked as the most important part of the VIRMP packet. Conversations with people knowledgeable with the applicant was the only method judged by most respondents to be appropriate to evaluate all 23 attributes. Responses were similar between large and small animal supervisors and nonsupervisors. Respondents considered conversations with people knowledgeable with the applicant to be the most useful methods for assessing a resident applicant, but LOR, GPA, and class rank were also important. Resident applicants and mentors can use this information to strengthen applications.

Diagnostics in epilepsy - potential of magnetic resonance imaging

Epilepsy is a common neurologic disease frequently encountered by small animal practitioners. The disease comprises a multiplicity of clinical presentations and etiologies and often necessitates a comprehensive as well as cost-intensive diagnostic workup. This is mandatory in order to be able to diagnose or exclude a metabolic cause of the seizures and to distinguish between idiopathic and structural epilepsy. The examination by means of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) represents a central component of the diagnostic workup, which in turn has essential effects on treatment and prognosis. In order to achieve standardized examination and comparable results, it is of utmost importance to use defined MRI protocols. Accordingly, communication and interaction between clinical institutions may be facilitated and as of yet undetected structural changes might be recorded in future MRI techniques. This review article sets particularly emphasis on the definition and classification of epilepsy as well as its diagnostic imaging procedures and refers to statistics and specialists' recommendations for the diagnostic workup in dogs.

Treatment of the feline atopic syndrome - a systematic review.

Feline allergic skin disease and asthma occur regularly in small animal practice. To provide evidence-based recommendations for small animal practitioners on the treatment of feline atopic syndrome (FAS). The authors reviewed the literature available before February 2020, prepared a detailed evidence-based literature review and made recommendations based on the evaluated evidence. Sixty-six papers and abstracts were identified describing treatment interventions for FAS and evaluated to establish treatment recommendations. For many treatment options, the papers were retrospective, open studies or case reports. In this review, there was good evidence for the efficacy of systemic glucocorticoids and ciclosporin, and limited evidence for the efficacy of topical glucocorticoids, oclacitinib and allergen-specific immunotherapy in feline atopic skin syndrome. Evidence pointed to low-to-moderate efficacy for antihistamines, fatty acids and palmitoyl ethanolamide. In feline asthma, there was good evidence for the efficacy of oral and inhaled glucocorticoids, and limited evidence of moderate efficacy for allergen-specific immunotherapy. Evidence supported low-to-moderate efficacy of mesenchymal stem cells, inhaled lidocaine and oclacitinib as treatments for feline asthma. For almost all therapeutic options (with the exception of glucocorticoids and ciclosporin), more randomised controlled trials are needed.

A practical review of small intestinal anastomosis for the small animal practitioner

Dehiscence following intestinal surgery results in significant patient morbidity and mortality. Thorough knowledge and application of modern evidence-based principles relating to the procedures of enterotomy and enterectomy with anastomosis can significantly reduce the risk of postoperative complications in small animals. This article will review some of the potential causes of intestinal dehiscence and reflect on best practice surgical principles, highlighting particularly important key learning objectives to improve outcome.

Small animal cardiopulmonary -resuscitation (CPR) in general practice

Cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) is the acute cessation of systemic perfusion and ventilation. It leads to a lack of tissue oxygen delivery and, if not addressed quickly, will inevitably cause death. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is the only available treatment for CPA and several opportunities exist to improve the veterinary team's resuscitation approach and optimize small animal CPR patient outcomes. In 2012, the Reassessment Campaign on Veterinary Resuscitation (RECOVER) initiative generated evidence-based clinical guidelines to form the basis for training and practice of CPR in dogs and cats. When employing an evidence-based, standardized approach to small animal CPR, return of spontaneous circulation can be achieved in up to 58% of patients and up to 7% of dogs and 19% of cats can be discharged from the veterinary hospital alive. Survival for dogs and cats that suffer CPA is best in patients that suffer a peri-anesthetic arrest, so high quality CPR in the anesthesia patient population is of utmost importance and expected to be the most rewarding. To ensure the best possible outcomes for any patient suffering from CPA and undergoing CPR, a comprehensive resuscitation strategy is necessary, that includes preventive and preparedness measures, basic life support (chest compressions and ventilation), advanced life support (optimization of the patient status by targeted drug therapy, cardiac rhythm monitoring, and defibrillation), and post-cardiac arrest critical care. This article summarizes the most important RECOVER CPR guidelines for the small animal practitioner.

I Would like to, but I can\u2019t. An Online Survey on the Moral Challenges of German Farm Veterinarians

The job of veterinarians is often described as morally challenging. This online survey (n = 123) investigated how farm veterinarians in Germany perceive these challenges. Most participants described their job in accordance with the literature: as a profession that regularly has to deal with morally difficult decisions. The majority assumed that their moral challenges were greater than the ones of small animal practitioners. The results indicate that the typical moral challenges are (a) situations in which the farm veterinarians are convinced to know what is morally right, however, specific external obstacles prevent them from implementing their convictions. Therefore, the central moral problem from the veterinarians’ point of view can be described with the following words: “I would like to, but I can’t.” Other ideal types of moral challenges like (b) open ethical questions, (c) ethical dilemmas or (d) “duty vs. inclination” conflicts play a less prominent role. With regard to dealing with these challenges, the study shows that farm veterinarians are looking for exchange, for example with colleagues. Most participants see the current social debate about livestock farming as something that stresses them, arguing that their university’s curriculum did not adequately prepare them to participate in these controversies.

Molecular detection of hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) in domestic cats (Felis catus) in Romania

BackgroundThe hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) of the genus Mycoplasma are recognized as important bacteria that parasitize red blood cells, causing hemolytic anemia in many mammalian species, including cats. No information is available concerning the presence of feline hemoplasma infections in cats in Romania. Thus, the objective of the present study was to provide data on the occurrence and molecular characterization of hemotropic mycoplasmas in client-owned cats in Romania.MethodsBlood samples from 51 unhealthy cats, originating from Timişoara Municipality, Romania, were screened for the presence of hemoplasmas using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the 16S rRNA gene and sequencing assays. PCR-positive samples were subsequently analyzed by phylogenetic and population genetic analysis.ResultsMolecular analysis revealed 11 (21.6%) positive samples, consisting of 8 (72.7%) Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum and 3 (27.3%) Mycoplasma haemofelis confirmed positives. Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis was not detected, and no co-infections were registered. No significant associations (p > 0.05) were found between the hemoplasma infection status and age, gender, breed, presence of ectoparasites, feline leukemia virus/feline immunodeficiency virus positivity of cats, or the sampling season. However, outdoor access was positively associated (p = 0.049) with infection and could be considered a risk factor (OR = 4.1) in acquiring feline hemotropic mycoplasmas. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that our sequences clustered with those selected from the GenBank database in two distinct clades. The registered population genetic indices were strongly supportive of the great variance in sequences between the recorded Mycoplasma species.ConclusionsThe findings support the occurrence of feline hemoplasma infections in previously uninvestigated territories of Europe, providing useful information for small animal practitioners. To our knowledge, the present survey is the first reported molecular evidence of feline hemoplasma infections in Romania.

Clinicians perception and assessment of risk factors for surgical site infections in small animal practice in South-West, Nigeria

This study evaluated the prevalence of Surgical Site Infections (SSIs), the enhancing risk factors in small animal hospitals and clinics, and clinicians’ perception of SSIs in South-west, Nigeria. Ten years (2007-2017) surgical patients’ case records from four government veterinary hospitals were initially studied. Fifty-seven copies of structured pre-tested questionnaires were further administered to practice representatives in government and private small animal facilities in 6 states of South-West, Nigeria. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics and Pearson Chi-square at 95% confidence intervals. One hundred and twenty-six out of 584 small animal surgical patients satisfied the inclusion criteria. Eight (6.3%) cases from the case records had SSIs. Fifty out of 57 retrieved questionnaires satisfied the inclusion criteria for analysis. Sixty-four percent of respondents had the Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree while 36% had additional degrees. The majority (64%) of respondents had 1 to 3 years practice experience with the rest having above 3 years. Most of the respondents (96%) had good knowledge of SSI, 78.7% usually manage SSI cases and 18% had lost patients due to SSIs. Only 48% of the practices perform surgery in designated operating rooms. The environment (94%), hands of clinicians/caregiver (80%) and patients’ skin (62%) were the main sources of SSIs in respondents’ practice. Few respondents (19.1%) administer prophylactic antibiotics for all surgeries, 6.1% discontinue within 24 h post-surgery, while 75.5% continue antibiotic therapy for 3 to 7 days post-surgery. Lack of facilities (40%) and funds (54%) prevented some clinicians from keeping up with SSIs prevention measures. There was an association between the risk factors of post-operative wound dehiscence (P=0.006), classification of the surgical procedures (P=0.032) and SSI occurrence. Although many small animal practitioners are aware of SSIs risk factors, only few adhere to prevention protocols. Key words: Surgical site infection (SSI), risk factors, small animal clinicians, perception.

Implementation of laparoscopy and thoracoscopy in small animal practice following an intensive training course

This study aimed to assess trainee perceptions regarding the usefulness of an intensive hands-on minimally invasive surgery (MIS) training, as well as the subsequent implementation experience. An online questionnaire was emailed to 110 small animal veterinarians who attended the course between 2007 and 2017. The questionnaire comprised three sections: general attendee information, questions pertaining to the received laparoscopic and thoracoscopic training, and finally enquiries on cumulative post-training and current MIS practice. Forty-five veterinarians answered the questionnaire. Most respondents had prior laparoscopy and/or thoracoscopy experience (95.2 %), but close to half (46.7 %), modified their clinical practice as a result of the training. Seventy-five percent of the totally inexperienced participants started practicing MIS within two years of attending the course. A large proportion of respondents indicated their need for additional training for more advanced laparoscopy (71.1%) and thoracoscopy (77.8%) procedures. Accordingly, the main difficulty found by respondents regarding MIS implementation was insufficient training (37.8%). The most frequently encountered difficulty during procedures was bleeding (46.7%), while the most feared complication was related to anesthesia (31.1%). Ovariectomy and ovariohysterectomy were the most frequently performed minimally invasive procedures in trainee working centers. MIS training promotes the introduction of laparoscopy and thoracoscopy into clinical practice and expands the type of surgeries performed with these approaches. Nonetheless, a single intensive program does not comply with the diverse training needs of small animal practitioners.

Gross anatomy, histology and blood vessel topography of the alimentary canal of the Inland Bearded Dragon (Pogona vitticeps).

Imaging techniques have proved to be crucial for diagnosis in reptile species. The topography of the internal organs of bearded dragons has been described in recent studies as meeting the small animal practitioners´ demand for knowledge concerning their anatomy. However, the nomenclature in the respective literature is not uniform, which could lead to misunderstandings concerning the respective and/or affected parts of the alimentary canal. Therefore, the aim of this study was to provide clear information on anatomy and histology of the alimentary canal of bearded dragons including supplying blood vessels. For the dissection of the alimentary canal, 11 Inland Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps) were used (five males, six females), which had been euthanised for clinical reasons other than those concerning the digestive tract or had died spontaneously. The supplying arteries were demonstrated by injecting red latex into the aorta, while the intestinal veins were filled with blue latex via the portal vein. Microscopic examination was carried out on specimens of seven additional bearded dragons using routine histologic procedures. Macroscopically, the sections of the alimentary canal from oral to aboral were distinguished into oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, colic ampulla, colic isthmus, rectum and cloaca. Differentiation of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum was only possible when considering the bile duct, the vasculature and the histology of the organ wall. Arteries supplying the oesophagus and the final straight part of the large intestine originated from the aorta in a segmental manner. Between these, three unpaired arteries arose from the aorta. Their branches supplied stomach and intestine excluding its last part. Based on the findings of the present study, a nomenclature for the different parts of the alimentary canal and the supplying blood vessels of bearded dragons is suggested which is well understandable for veterinary practitioners and is based on zoological knowledge of reptiles.

Study on preanesthetic risk evaluation in dogs using the ASA-classification system in Germany

The aim of this study was to assess the accuracy of anesthetic risk evaluation in dogs by using the ASA-classification system (ASA = American Society of Anesthesiologists). In human medicine, several studies criticize ranking patients prior to anesthesia via the ASA-classification due to its subjectivity and substantial variance. This study intends to detect and analyze possible comparable effects when applying the ASA-classification system to dogs. An online survey was conducted among small animal practitioners throughout Germany. Participants were asked to answer questions concerning their professional background. In addition, they received a questionnaire containing information on 15 selected patients. This included a brief introduction of the patient, the medical history, findings of the preanesthetic examination, the results of blood analysis and biochemistry as well as the reason for planned general anesthesia. Participants were asked to classify the patients according to the ASA-classification scheme. The results were analyzed using an independent t-test, univariate ANOVA and Fleiss' Kappa (κ). The level of significance was set at 5 %. Overall, only weak consistency of the assigned ASA-classes (κ = 0.33) was evident. Each of the 15 patients was ranked in at least 3 different ASA-classes and 4 patients received assignment to all 5 possible classes. No effect of gender or clinical experience of the veterinarian could be detected on ranking patients correctly. There was also no effect of how confident veterinarians felt in applying the ASA-classification system on the accuracy of evaluating these 15 patients. This study provides further evidence for a certain subjectivity as well as considerable variance when applying the ASA-classification system to dogs. The ASA-classification system is a widespread tool for rapid and easy preanesthetic risk classification of a veterinary patient. Nevertheless, the inclusion of criteria of increased objectivity in the preanesthetic evaluation is warranted in order to obtain precise and reproducible data.

Companion interview

Olivia de Rivaz has managed to combine her role as a small animal practitioner with a burgeoning career as an artist. Olivia was born and raised in Surrey, and is the youngest of three children of a senior civil servant father and a charity fundraiser mother. She graduated from the Royal Veterinary College in 2006 and now lives in Wiltshire.

Antimicrobial practices among small animal veterinarians in Greece: a survey

BackgroundThe inappropriate use of antibiotics is a major issue in clinical practice in Greece with serious implications for public health and animal health. The purpose of the present study was to provide a first insight into the use of antibiotics by small animal practitioners in Greece and assess their compliance with general rules for the rational use of antibiotics. This is the first survey of its kind in Greece.MethodsA questionnaire was designed to collect basic information on the use of antibiotics by pet veterinarians. The questionnaire was sent to a total of 70 veterinarians mainly operating in the region of Attica, a region that comprises almost 50% of the Greek population and where veterinarians are engaged solely in small animal practice. The questionnaire consisted of 37 closed questions dealing with various aspects on the use of antibiotics.ResultsThe majority of practitioners report cases where the pet owner initiated antibiotic treatment without veterinary prescription. Almost every clinician reported owner-compliance challenges. Regarding microbiological analysis, 73% of respondents initiate empirical treatment while waiting for laboratory results or use antibiogram only when the treatment is unsuccessful. Eighty-eight per cent declared to use antimicrobials postoperatively in clean surgical procedures. Different types of antimicrobials and treatment durations than the ones proposed by guidelines on rational use of antibiotics are preferred for various organ systems e.g. in urinary and gastrointestinal infections.ConclusionsOur findings suggest the need for guidelines on antibiotic use in small animal practice in Greece, and the deployment of systematic surveillance on antimicrobials use and resistance to inform the initial choice of antibiotics upon local antimicrobial resistance profiles. Targeting the other end of the problem, pet owners, our findings indicate the need to educate them on the rational use of antibiotics and, critically, stop antibiotic availability without prescription.