Sludge-treated Soil Research Articles

Chemical variables influencing microbial properties in composted tannery sludge-treated soil

Repeated applications of composted tannery sludge to arable soils have the potential to greatly alter soil chemistry and thus potentially influence the soil microbial community over time. This study performed multivariate analyses using the data of soil microbial biomass, respiration, and enzymes activities obtained during 5 years (2010–2014) in a long-term experiment with composted tannery sludge amendment. The correlation between the soil microbial and chemical properties, via the analysis of similarity matrices, revealed calcium as the main single factor influencing the microbial properties, in 2010 and 2011. Afterward, chromium was the most important chemical variables driving the microbial properties in 2012, 2013, and 2014. The non-metric multidimensional scaling demonstrated that the soil microbial properties changed with composted tannery sludge application from 2010 to 2014. Multivariate analysis from soil microbial data with composted tannery sludge amendment, during 5 years, showed calcium and chromium as being the most significant variables influencing the soil microbial properties in composted tannery sludge-treated soil.

Collembola Reproduction Decreases with Aging of Silver Nanoparticles in a Sewage Sludge-Treated Soil

Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) are integrated into various products due to their antimicrobial characteristics and hence, the application of AgNP is increasing. During production, use and disposal AgNP are emitted and enter the environment via several pathways. Soils are considered a major sink of AgNP. The aim of the present study was to determine the toxic effect of AgNP on Folsomia candida reproduction to illustrate potential impact on terrestrial ecosystems. The AgNP-dependent reduction of F. candida reproduction was studied in RefeSol 01-A, LUFA 2.2 and OECD soil at 0.3 µg – 50 mg Ag kg-1. To simulate realistic exposure pathways, effects on F. candida reproduction after the application of AgNP via sewage sludge and after aging this treatment in the soil for up to 140 days were studied using environmentally relevant concentrations. The OECD representative AgNP, NM-300K, and AgNO3, as a metal salt reference, were used in all experiments. The generated data demonstrate that the presence of AgNP in the soil in the low mg Ag kg-1 concentration range results in significant, but concentration independent inhibition of F. candida reproduction in RefeSol 01-A and LUFA 2.2. Significant inhibition of F. candida reproduction due to AgNP was also observed for soil amended with AgNP treated sludge. An increase in inhibition with aging of the AgNP in the soil was evident. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that, at environmentally relevant concentrations, AgNP adsorption to sludge and subsequent aging in soil lead to a toxic effect on soil invertebrates.

Nematode-based biomarkers as critical risk indicators on assessing the impact of silver nanoparticles on soil ecosystems

Soil contamination caused by silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) released from sewage treatment plants (STPs) is of great public concern. Understanding the relationships between the physicochemical properties of AgNPs and their toxicity is critical for environmental and health risk analysis. Here we presented an approach for rapidly screening and assessing the potential toxicity risk of AgNPs in general and sludge-treated soils based on the nematode Caenhorhabditis elegans-based probabilistic risk assessment framework. The soil environmental risks were estimated depending on the characteristics of AgNPs and geographic regions. We assessed the risk for soils exceeding a threshold of C. elegans neurotoxicity based on the statistical models. Our results indicated that locomotion inhibition of C. elegans was depending on surface properties, diameter, and exposure time of AgNPs. Here we showed that the overall sewage sludge-released AgNPs-associated soil contamination risk was very low among Europe, U.S., and Switzerland. However, large production and widespread use of AgNPs are highly likely to pose long-term ecotoxicity risk on general and sludge-treated soils, particularly for 26nm citrate-coated AgNPs. Our approach of integrating probabilistic risk model and C. elegans-based ecological indicator provides an effective tool to rapidly screen and assess the impacts of STPs-released AgNPs on soil environment. We suggest that C. elegans as a proxy for estimating soil risk metrics can help develop methods of management for mitigating the metal NPs-induced toxicity on terrestrial ecosystems.

Silver nanoparticles in soil: Aqueous extraction combined with single-particle ICP-MS for detection and characterization

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are used in a growing number of applications and products. Previous studies showed AgNPs can leach from these products to the environment. As a result of AgNPs leaching, sediment, soil and sludge-treated soils may be contaminated with AgNPs. Methods to detect, quantify and characterize AgNPs in soil are urgently needed. This study describes the development and validation of a method for the extraction, quantification and particle size determination of AgNPs in soils. The final method consists of pre-wetting the sample followed by an aqueous extraction, using sonication to re-suspend adsorbed AgNPs, and analysis of the aqueous extract with single particle ICP-MS. Validation of the method showed that the recovery of AgNPs spiked to soil was 44% for sandy soil and 42% for clayey soil. Although this recovery is relatively low, the repeatability and reproducibility values of the particle concentration were within the limits of Horwitz ratio, which makes the method suitable for its purpose. Further, the method concentration detection limit, LODc., is 5μgkg−1 soil. The developed method can be applied in eco-toxicological and risk-assessments studies for AgNP in the soil environment.

Biodegradation of crude oil-contaminated soil using canned-food-industry wastewater sludge for soil application

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of crude oil (application doses of 0.5% and 5%) from hydrocarbon contamination on the removal of the Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH) from soil and to determine the removal of TPH at different temperatures (18°C and 28°C) during an incubation period of 240 days. The possible use of wastewater sludge as a biostimulating agent in crude oil-contaminated soils was also evaluated. The results of the 240 days of incubation indicated that the TPH removal percentages in crude oil-contaminated and sludge-treated soils at 18°C were 89% and 79%, for doses of 0.5 and 5%, respectively. Incubation at 28°C resulted in higher TPH removal with removal percentages of 83% (dose of 0.5%) and 91% (dose of 5%). The degradation of crude oil in contaminated soil treated with a 5% dose was significantly enhanced by the addition of wastewater sludge, whereas no apparent biostimulating effect on TPH removal was observed in the case of low-dose (0.5%) crude oil contamination.

Natural attenuation of toxic metal phytoavailability in 35-year-old sewage sludge-amended soil.

Toxic heavy metals persist in agricultural soils and ecosystem for many decades after their application as contaminants in sewage sludge and fertilizer products This study assessed the potential long-term risk of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) in land-applied sewage sludge to food crop contamination. A sewage sludge-amended soil (SAS) aged in the field more than 35years was used in a greenhouse pot experiment with leafy vegetables (lettuce and amaranth) having strong Cd and Zn accumulation tendencies. Soil media with variable levels of available Cd, Zn, and Cu (measured using 0.01M CaCl2 extraction) were prepared by diluting SAS with several levels of uncontaminated control soil. Despite long-term aging in the field, the sludge site soil still retains large reserves of heavy metals, residual organic matter, phosphorus, and other nutrients, but its characteristics appear to have stabilized over time. Nevertheless, lettuce and amaranth harvested from the sludge-treated soil had undesirable contents of Cd and Zn. The high plant uptake efficiency for Cd and Zn raises a concern regarding the quality and safety of leafy vegetables in particular, when these crops are grown on soils that have been amended heavily with sewage sludge products at any time in their past.

Modeling flows and concentrations of nine engineered nanomaterials in the Danish environment.

Predictions of environmental concentrations of engineered nanomaterials (ENM) are needed for their environmental risk assessment. Because analytical data on ENM-concentrations in the environment are not yet available, exposure modeling represents the only source of information on ENM exposure in the environment. This work provides material flow data and environmental concentrations of nine ENM in Denmark. It represents the first study that distinguishes between photostable TiO2 (as used in sunscreens) and photocatalytic TiO2 (as used in self-cleaning surfaces). It also provides first exposure estimates for quantum dots, carbon black and CuCO3. Other ENM that are covered are ZnO, Ag, CNT and CeO2. The modeling is based for all ENM on probability distributions of production, use, environmental release and transfer between compartments, always considering the complete life-cycle of products containing the ENM. The magnitude of flows and concentrations of the various ENM depends on the one hand on the production volume but also on the type of products they are used in and the life-cycles of these products and their potential for release. The results reveal that in aquatic systems the highest concentrations are expected for carbon black and photostable TiO2, followed by CuCO3 (under the assumption that the use as wood preservative becomes important). In sludge-treated soil highest concentrations are expected for CeO2 and TiO2. Transformation during water treatments results in extremely low concentrations of ZnO and Ag in the environment. The results of this study provide valuable environmental exposure information for future risk assessments of these ENM.

Ecotoxicological evaluation of sewage sludge contaminated with zinc oxide nanoparticles.

The objective of this work was to evaluate the ecotoxicological qualitative risk associated with the use of sewage sludge containing Zn oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) as soil amendment. A sludge-untreated soil and two sludge-treated soils were spiked with ZnO-NPs (0-1,000 mg/kg soil). Soil ecotoxicity was assessed with Eisenia fetida (acute and sublethal end points), and the unfilterable and filterable (0.02 μm) soil leachates were tested with a battery of biomarkers using Chlorella vulgaris, Daphnia magna, and the fish cell line RTG-2 (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The production of E. fetida cocoons in sludge-treated soils was lower than that in sludge-untreated soils. The highest effect in the algal growth inhibition test was detected in sludge-untreated soil, most likely caused by the loss of organic matter in these samples. The D. magna results were always negative. Toxic effects (lysosomal cell function and production of reactive oxygen species) in RTG-2 cells were only observed in sludge-treated soils. In general, the toxicity of ZnO-NPs in sludge-treated soils was similar to that of sludge-untreated soil, and the filterable leachate fraction [Zn salt (Zn(2+))] did not produce greater effects than the unfilterable fraction (ZnO-NPs). Thus, after the addition of ZnO-NP--enriched sewage sludge to agricultural soil, the risk of toxic effects for soil and aquatic organisms was shown to be low. These findings are important because repeated use of organic amendments such as sewage sludge may cause more and more increased concentrations of ZnO-NPs in soils over the long-term.

Predicting bioavailability of metals from sludge-amended soils.

We attempted to develop a protocol for fixing the maximum permissible limit of sludge in agricultural lands based on transfer of metals from sludge-amended soils to human food chain. For this purpose, spinach was grown as a test crop on acid and alkaline soils with graded doses of sludge (0, 1.12, 2.24, 4.48, 8.96, 17.9, 35.8, 71.6, 142 and 285gkg(-1) of soil) in a pot experiment. Biomass yield of spinach was increased due to sludge application in both acid and alkaline soils. Among the chemical extractants, EDTA extracted the highest amount of metals from sludge-amended soil followed by diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) and CaCl2. Elevated levels of Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Cd and Pb in spinach were observed due to sludge application over control. Application of sludge was more effective in increasing metal content in spinach grown on acid soil than alkaline soil. Solubility-free ion activity model as a function of pH, organic carbon and extractable metal was far more effective in predicting metal uptake by spinach grown on sludge-amended soils as compared to that of chemical extractants. Risk in terms of hazard quotient (HQ) for intake of metals through consumption of spinach by humans grown on sludge-treated soils was computed for different metals separately. In a 90-day pot experiment, safe rates of sludge application were worked out as 4.48 and 71.6gkg(-1) for acid and alkaline soils, respectively.

The use of alum sludge to improve cereal production on a nutrient-deficient soil

Alum sludge from wastewater treatment was applied at five rates on a phosphorus-deficient sand, and the effects on cereal growth and nutrition were investigated over 2 years. An inorganic fertilizer treatment, reapplied in the second year, was also included. The grain yield for inorganic fertilizer was 44% higher than the control in year 1 and 58% higher in year 2. Alum sludge was an adequate source of nitrogen for crop growth, and supplied sufficient residual nitrogen to meet crop requirements in year 2. However, grain yield in the alum sludge treatment applied at an equivalent available nitrogen rate to the inorganic fertilizer was 62% (year 1) and 69% (year 2) of the yield achieved by the inorganic fertilizer, though greater than the control. No toxic forms of aluminium were detected in the soil at any rate of alum sludge application. Plant shoot tissue analysis indicated that wheat sown in alum sludge-amended soil and the control were phosphorus deficient, whereas phosphorus was adequate in the inorganic fertilizer treatment. There was no evidence of any other nutrient deficiency. Alum sludge amendment resulted in an increase in soil phosphorus; however, further soil analysis indicated that forms of phosphorus present in alum sludge-amended soil may not be available for crop uptake; this is consistent with phosphorus deficiency observed in plant tissue in alum sludge-treated soil. It is suggested that on this nutrient-poor sand, the ability of alum sludge to provide sufficient phosphorus for plant production was limited in the 2 years after application.

Engineered nanomaterials in water and soils: A risk quantification based on probabilistic exposure and effect modeling

The production and use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are increasing rapidly, and therefore, the need to assess their environmental exposure and associated risks has become increasingly important. Only a handful of studies have quantified the release and environmental concentrations of ENMs, but much work has been done to investigate the effects of these materials on organisms. The aim of the present study was to quantify probabilistically the environmental risks of ENMs, producing species sensitivity distributions that were then compared with probability distributions of predicted environmental concentrations. Five nanomaterials (nano-Ag, nano-TiO2 , nano-ZnO, carbon nanotubes [CNTs], and fullerenes) and 4 environmental compartments (surface water, sewage treatment plant effluents, soils, and sludge-treated soils) were considered. From 60 ecotoxicological studies, the authors extracted 112 single values to work with (25 values in 13 studies for nano-Ag, 17 values in 10 studies for CNTs, 7 values in 7 studies for fullerenes, 34 values in 23 studies for nano-TiO2 , and 29 values in 17 studies for nano-ZnO). The results indicate there is only a marginal risk for these metal-based nanomaterials in surface water (0.7% risk for nano-Ag and <0.1% for nano-TiO2 ) and some risk in sewage treatment plant effluents (nano-Ag 39.7%, nano-TiO2 18.7%, and nano-ZnO 1.1%). Apart from a marginal value of <0.1% for nano-TiO2 in sludge-treated soils, no risk from the other evaluated ENMs in terrestrial compartments is currently predicted. The discussion of the results considers the influence of the effects of different forms of 1 ENM (coating, agglomeration state, and mineralogy), the test conditions (dissolution and agglomeration), and transformation reactions.

A Survey of Heavy Metals content of Soil and plants As Affected by Long-Term Application of Sewage Water. A Case Study

As part of a four year study evaluating the practicability and value of sewage sludge use in Egypt, soil and plant surveys were carried out on a citrus plantation, irrigated with Cairo sewage since the 1920s, in order to evaluate the long-term accumulation of trace elements and heavy metals and their bioavailability. While total and DTPA soil concentrations correlated well, no relationship could be found between soil and plant tissue concentrations, despite elevated levels of heavy metals in the soil. Study of long-term contamination of soil with potentially toxic elements (PTEs) has not demonstrated a potential risk to crop quality and yield or human health from the slow accumulation of PTEs in sludge-treated agricultural soil. PTE concentrations in plant tissues remained low and within normal ranges despite significant increases in soil content after long-term irrigation with sewage effluent. Concentrations of PTEs in plant tissues were not related to total or DTPA extractable metals in contaminated soil. DTPA may not be a sufficiently reliable indicator of actual phytoavailability of trace elements in sludge-treated soil, although it is accepted that DTPA is widely used in nutrient diagnosis assessment. These data provide assurance about the minimal risk to the environment from trace elements and PTEs in sludge-treated agricultural soil, but a more detailed dietary analysis of Cd intakes under Egyptian conditions is recommended, following the approaches adopted in the UK and US for setting Cd soil limits or loading rates for this element.

Soil microbial community structure affected by 53 years of nitrogen fertilisation and different organic amendments

The Ultuna long-term soil organic matter experiment in Sweden (59′82° N, 17′65° E) was started in 1956 to study the effects of different N fertilisers and organic amendments on soil properties. In this study, samples were taken from 11 of the treatments, including unfertilised bare fallow and cropped fallow, straw with and without N addition, green manure, peat, farmyard manure, sawdust, sewage sludge, calcium nitrate and ammonium sulphate, with n = 4 for each treatment. Samples were taken from topsoil (0–20 cm) and subsoil (27–40 cm depth) and analysed for concentrations of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs), organic C, total N and pH. The results showed that the subsoil samples reflected the total PLFA content of the topsoil, but not the microbial community structure. Total PLFA content was well correlated with total organic C and total N in both topsoil and subsoil. Total PLFA content in topsoil samples was highest in the sewage sludge treatment (89 ± 22 nmol PLFA g dw−1). This contradicts earlier findings on microbial biomass in this sewage sludge-treated soil, which indicated inhibition of microorganisms, probably by heavy metals added with sludge. A switch towards microbial growth and faster decomposition of organic matter occurred around 2000, coinciding with lowered heavy metal content in the sludge. According to the PLFA data, the microbial community in the sewage sludge treatment is now dominated by Gram-positive bacteria. A lack of Gram-negative bacteria was also observed for the ammonium sulphate treatment, obviously caused by a drop in pH to 4.2.

Plant availability of trace elements in sewage sludge-treated soils: methodology¹

Synthetic root exudates were formulated based on the organic acid composition of root exudates derived from the rhizosphere of aseptically grown corn plants, pH of the rhizosphere, and the background chemical matrices of the soil solutions. The synthetic root exudates, which mimic the chemical conditions of the rhizosphere environment where soil-borne metals are dissolved and absorbed by plants, were used to extract metals from sewage-sludge treated soils 16 successive times. The concentrations of Zn, Cd, Ni, Cr, and Cu of the sludge-treated soil were 71.74, 0.21, 15.90, 58.12, and 37.44 mg kg-1, respectively. The composition of synthetic root exudates consisted of acetic, butyric, glutaric, lactic, maleic, propionic, pyruvic, succinic, tartaric, and valeric acids. The organic acid mixtures had concentrations of 0.05 and 0.1 mol L-1 -COOH. The trace elements removed by successive extractions may be considered representative for the availability of these metals to plants in these soils. The chemical speciation of the metals in the liquid phase was calculated; results showed that metals in sludge-treated soils were dissolved and formed soluble complexes with the different organic acid-based root exudates. The most reactive organic acid ligands were lactate, maleate, tartarate, and acetate. The inorganic ligands of chloride and sulfate played insignificant roles in metal dissolution. Except for Cd, free ions did not represent an important chemical species of the metals in the soil rhizosphere. As different metals formed soluble complexes with different ligands in the rhizosphere, no extractor, based on a single reagent would be able to recover all of the potentially plant-available metals from soils; the root exudate-derived organic acid mixtures tested in this study may be better suited to recover potentially plant-available metals from soils than the conventional extractors.

Extratores químicos empregados na determinação de P como indicadores ambientais em solos tratados com lodo de esgoto

A aplicação de lodo de esgoto pode contribuir para elevar os teores de alguns nutrientes no solo de forma inadequada, como, por exemplo, o P. Na prática, as doses de lodo de esgoto são calculadas com base na necessidade de N das culturas, não levando em conta a necessidade de P ou o destino do P aplicado com o resíduo. O P é um nutriente frequentemente associado com a aceleração da eutrofização nos corpos hídricos, em virtude do seu transporte por meio da enxurrada. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar se três extratores químicos empregados na determinação de P em solos para fins de fertilidade (CaCl2 0,01 mol L-1; Mehlich-1 e RTA) e um índice ambiental (GSP) poderiam ser utilizados na avaliação de impactos ambientais negativos, promovidos pelo deslocamento de P adicionado ao solo por lodo de esgoto em direção a corpos de água. A resposta desses extratores na determinação de P dos solos tratados com lodo de esgoto foi avaliada nas condições convencionais de uso e variando o tempo de extração do método original em busca da maior extração de P. Além disso, os extratores também foram avaliados após a alteração do pH das amostras de solo originais para modificar a disponibilidade de P. Os resultados obtidos com os extratores químicos foram comparados com os do fracionamento do P nas amostras. O fracionamento de P mostrou que a aplicação de lodo aumentou não apenas as concentrações totais de P no solo, mas também sua disponibilidade. Esse efeito foi mais pronunciado no solo de Jaguariúna (argiloso) do que no de Itatinga (arenoso). Houve aumento nas frações de P orgânico e inorgânico lábil e de P ligado a Al e Fe, em decorrência da aplicação do resíduo. Contudo, as frações de P solúvel e P ligado a Ca não foram encontradas em teores significativos nas amostras estudadas. Considerando que a alteração da disponibilidade de P induzida pela alteração do pH original das amostras não alterou as classes de teores do nutriente no solo empregadas usualmente nas recomendações de adubação, os extratores químicos e o indicador ambiental estudados são muito razoáveis para prever também riscos ambientais

Hazardous Effects of Eight Years of Application of Four Organic Waste Materials on Earthworm Numbers and Biomass in Field Lysimeters

The hazardous effects on the earthworm numbers and biomass of eight consecutive yearly applications of three levels (12.5, 25, and 50 tons of dry matter/ha/y) of four different organic sludges (municipal sewage, industrial sewage, alcohol fermentation processing, and leather processing) to earthworm-free soils were examined using field lysimeters. Results were compared with those of pig manure compost (PMC)-treated soil. Of five species (Amynthas agrestis, A. sangyeoli, A. hupeiensis, Drawida koreana, and D. japonica) from 390 adult specimens collected 4 and 8 years after treatment, the number of species appeared to be lower in sludge-treated soils than in PMC-treated soils. Earthworm populations and biomass were correlated negatively with the pollution index [∑(heavy-metal concentration in soil/tolerable level)/number of heavy metal] 4 and 8 years after treatment. These results suggest that the long-term application of these sludges, particularly from industrial sewage and leather processing, might affect adversely the establishment of Megascolecid and Moniligastrid earthworms in field conditions.

Modeled Environmental Concentrations of Engineered Nanomaterials (TiO2, ZnO, Ag, CNT, Fullerenes) for Different Regions

Engineered nanomaterials (ENM) are already used in many products and consequently released into environmental compartments. In this study, we calculated predicted environmental concentrations (PEC) based on a probabilistic material flow analysis from a life-cycle perspective of ENM-containing products. We modeled nano-TiO(2), nano-ZnO, nano-Ag, carbon nanotubes (CNT), and fullerenes for the U.S., Europe and Switzerland. The environmental concentrations were calculated as probabilistic density functions and were compared to data from ecotoxicological studies. The simulated modes (most frequent values) range from 0.003 ng L(-1) (fullerenes) to 21 ng L(-1) (nano-TiO(2)) for surface waters and from 4 ng L(-1) (fullerenes) to 4 microg L(-1) (nano-TiO(2)) for sewage treatment effluents. For Europe and the U.S., the annual increase of ENMs on sludge-treated soil ranges from 1 ng kg(-1) for fullerenes to 89 microg kg(-1) for nano-TiO(2). The results of this study indicate that risks to aquatic organisms may currently emanate from nano-Ag, nano-TiO(2), and nano-ZnO in sewage treatment effluents for all considered regions and for nano-Ag in surface waters. For the other environmental compartments for which ecotoxicological data were available, no risks to organisms are presently expected.

Application of fresh and composted organic wastes modifies structure, size and activity of soil microbial community under semiarid climate

Although the application of organic amendments is considered a suitable tool for improving soil fertility, few studies have been conducted in semiarid climates to evaluate the joint effect of such practice on the structure and function of the soil's microbial community. The aim of this work therefore was to make a comparative study of the effect of organic materials of differing degrees of stabilization (a sewage sludge and a compost made from the same) on the size, activity and structure of the microbial community in a semiarid soil. In samples taken in spring, summer and autumn over a 2-year period we analysed parameters that indicate the size of the microbial community [microbial biomass C (MBC)], its general activity (ATP and respiration) and specific activity related to the N, P and C cycles in the soil (urease, phosphatase and β-glucosidase, respectively). Two years after the organic amendment, the structure of the microbial community was studied by analysing phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs). At the end of the experiment, the MBC of the compost and sludge-treated soils was 489 and 463 mg C mic kg −1, respectively, while the MBC of the control soils was 247 mg C mic kg −1. Over the 2-year period, the higher β-glucosidase, urease and alkaline phosphatase activities of compost and sludge-treated soils reflected higher substrate availability in these plots compared to the control plots. Indeed, plant abundance increased by about 25% with organic amendments. Whereas the bacterial to fungal ratio of signature PLFAs did not change, the ratio of monounsaturated/saturated and the ratio of Gram +/Gram − of the different treatments indicated that a different bacterial community developed 2 years after amendment with compost and sludge. Thus, factor analysis via PLFAs showed a change in microbial community structure in amended soils versus control soil. It can be concluded that microbial biomass and activity of degraded semiarid soils can be improved by the addition of organic materials of differing degrees of stabilization (compost and sewage sludge). Compost-amended soils showed the highest carbon contents, while in general no differences in activity or microbial biomass where found between compost or sludge treatments. Although phytotoxic substances in sewage sludge might negatively affect plant development, the similar density of plant cover developed in sludge and compost-treated soils suggests that any phytotoxic substances had been degraded.

Cinética de solubilização de metais pesados por ácidos orgânicos em solos tratados com lodo de esgoto

A presença de ligantes orgânicos na rizosfera tem importante papel no processo de solubilização de metais pesados em solos tratados com lodo de esgoto. Ácidos orgânicos de baixo peso molecular exsudados por raízes e, ou, liberados por microrganismos são considerados agentes mobilizadores desses metais. No presente estudo, determinou-se a cinética de solubilização de Cu, Cr, Ni e Zn em solos tratados com lodo de esgoto, utilizando solução com mistura de quatro ácidos orgânicos (acético, cítrico, lático e oxálico) preparada para obter concentração final de 0,05 e 0,10 mol L-1. A extração foi feita segundo o método de "batch". A solução 0,10 mol L-1 de ácidos orgânicos extraiu maiores quantidades de Cu, Cr, Ni e Zn do que a solução 0,05 mol L¹. A cinética de solubilização apresentou duas fases: uma inicial, com rápida liberação dos metais, seguida de outra mais lenta, tendendo ao equilíbrio. As constantes de velocidade de solubilização mais altas foram observadas para Ni e Zn, seguidos de Cu e Cr. Os valores para o reservatório lábil variaram entre 2 e 15 % do total de cada metal pesado estudado. A porcentagem que este reservatório representou, em relação ao total, obedeceu à ordem: Zn &gt; Cu &lt;FONT FACE=Symbol&gt;@&lt;/FONT&gt; Ni &gt; Cr.

Effects of Cd, Zn, or both on soil microbial biomass and activity in a clay loam soil

We investigated Cd, Zn, and Cd + Zn toxicity to soil microbial biomass and activity, and indigenous Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii, in two near neutral pH clay loam soils, under long-term arable and grassland management, in a 6-month laboratory incubation, with a view to determining the causative metal. Both soils were amended with Cd- or Zn-enriched sewage sludge, to produce soils with total Cd concentrations at four times (12 mg Cd g−1 soil), and total Zn concentrations (300 mg Zn kg−1 soil) at the EU upper permitted limit. The additive effects of Cd plus Zn at these soil concentrations were also investigated. There were no significant differences in microbial biomass C (BC), biomass ninhydrin N (BN), ATP, or microbial respiration between the different treatments. Microbial metabolic quotient (defined as qCO2 = units of CO2–C evolved unit−1 biomass C unit−1 time) also did not differ significantly between treatments. However, the microbial maintenance energy (in this study defined as qCO2-to-μ ratio value, where μ is the growth rate) indicated that more energy was required for microbial synthesis in metal-rich sludge-treated soils (especially Zn) than in control sludge-treated soils. Indigenous R.leguminosarum bv. trifolii numbers were not significantly different between untreated and sludge-treated grassland soils after 24 weeks regardless of metal or metal concentrations. However, rhizobial numbers in the arable soils treated with metal-contaminated sludges decreased significantly (P Cd > Cd + Zn.