Slow Transport Rates Research Articles

Regulating V2O5 Layer Spacing by a Polyaniline Molecule Chain to Improve Electrochemical Performance in Salinity Gradient Energy Conversion.

Salinity gradient energy is a chemical potential energy between two solutions with different ionic concentrations, which is also an ocean energy at the junction of rivers and seas. In our original work, the device "activated carbon//(0.083 M Na2SO4, 0.5 M Na2SO4)//vanadium pentoxide" for the conversion of salinity gradient energy was designed, and the conversion value of 6.29 J g-1 was obtained. However, the low specific surface area of the original V2O5 inevitably resulted in limited active sites and slow ionic transport rates, and the inherent lower conductivity and narrower layer spacing of the original V2O5 also resulted in poor electrode kinetic performance and cycle stability, hindering its practical application. To solve the above problems, the present work provides a strategy of using polyaniline (PANI) molecule chain intercalation to regulate the layer spacing of the original V2O5, and through the expansion and traction of the layer spacing, the composite PANI/V2O5 (PVO) with high specific surface area is prepared and used as an anode material for electrochemical conversion of salinity gradient energy application. The significantly increased layer spacing of the crystal plane (001) corresponding to the original V2O5 was confirmed with the PANI by the hydrogen bonding and the van der Waals force. The high specific surface area of the composite provides more electrochemical active sites to realize a fast Na+ migration rate and high specific capacitance. Meanwhile, the inserted PANI molecule chain, which acts not only as a pillar enlarging the Na+ diffusion channel but also as an anchor locking the gap between V2O5 bilayers, improves the structural stability of the V2O5 electrode during the electrochemical conversion process. The proposed insertion strategy for the conductive polymer PANI has created a new way to improve the cycle stability performance of the salinity gradient energy conversion device.

Bidirectional anisotropic bacterial cellulose/polyvinyl alcohol/MXene aerogel phase change composites for photothermal conversion enhancement

The issues of inherent low thermal conductivity, slow heat transport rate and easy leakage are critical challenges for accelerating solar-thermal energy harvesting and storage for organic solid-liquid phase change materials (PCMs). Aerogel carriers with thermal conductivity enhancement based on ice temple methods show favorable potential for PCMs solar thermal applications. Comparing with disordered and unidirectional freezing, bidirectional freezing can assemble efficiently in multiple dimensions and result in long-range ordered structures. In this paper, bacterial cellulose/polyvinyl alcohol/MXene aerogels were constructed by bidirectional freezing. The anisotropic PCMs composites were from vacuum impregnation PEG into aerogel networks. By controlling crystallization and growth of ice crystals through the dual temperature gradients, the PCMs composites obtained enhanced heat transfer efficiency in horizontal and vertical directions. Bidirectional aligned PCMs with PDMS wedge angle of 0° and 20° exhibit high thermal conductivity of 0.716 W m−1 K−1 and 0.768 W m−1 K−1, which were 184% higher than that of PEG, and photothermal conversion efficiency of 55.17% and 76.91%. Remarkably, the PCMs composites with a 20° PDMS wedge angle also exhibited a high PCM loading capacity (96.3%) and a high enthalpy (157.7 J/g). The results show that bidirectional anisotropic PCMs composites have excellent overall performance and are expected to improve solar thermal application.

Designing interconnected passages by “legs-to-head” directional U-shape freeze casting to boost solar-driven self-pumping oil spill recovery

Solar-heating siphon-assisted oil recovery is promising as an eco-friendly strategy for oil spill mitigation due to its spontaneous, continuous, and renewable operation.

Effect of tides on river water behavior over the eastern shelf seas of China

Abstract. Rivers carry large amounts of freshwater and terrestrial material into shelf seas, which is an important part of the global water and biogeochemical cycles. The earth system model or climate model is an important instrument for simulating and projecting the global water cycle and climate change, in which tides however are commonly removed. For a better understanding of the potential effect of the absence of tides in the simulation of the water cycle, this study compared the results of a regional model with and without considering tides, and evaluated the effect of tides on the behavior of three major rivers (i.e., the Yellow, Yalujiang, and Changjiang rivers) water in the eastern shelf seas of China from the perspectives of transport pathways, timescales, and water concentration. The results showed that the tides induced more dispersed transport for the water of the Yellow and Yalujiang rivers, but more concentrated transport for the Changjiang River water. The effect of tides on the transit areas of the Yellow, Yalujiang, and Changjiang rivers was 13 %, 40 %, and 21 %, respectively. The annual mean water age and transit time of the three rivers in the model with tides were several (∼ 2–10) times higher than those in the no-tide model, suggesting that tides dramatically slow the river water transport and export rate over the shelf. By slowing the river water export, tides induced a three-fold increase in river water concentration and a decrease in shelf seawater salinity by > 1. Moreover, the effect of tides on river behavior was stronger in relatively enclosed seas (i.e., the Bohai and Yellow seas) than in relatively open seas (i.e., the East China Sea). The change in the shelf currents induced by tides is the main cause of the difference in the river water behavior between the two model runs. Tides can increase bottom stress and thus weaken shelf currents and decrease the water transport timescales. The improvement in tidal parameterization in the no-tide model in the simulation of river water behavior was very limited. Given the important role of river runoff on the global water cycle and the effect of changes in river water behavior on ocean carbon cycling, it is important to include the tidal effect in earth system models to improve their projection accuracy.

Reactive Sputtered NiO-YSZ Anode Functional Layer for Thin Film Low-Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is one of the most promising next-generation electrochemical energy conversion devices because of its wide choice of fuels, cleanliness and, high efficiency of up to 70-85%( with heat utilization). Recently, low-temperature SOFC (< 600 ℃) has been studied to overcome the limitations of conventional SOFC, e.g., thermal stability, cost, and limited application. However, lowering operated temperature is challenging due to slow charge transfer and ion transport rates. Therefore, SOFC design with thin-film stacks, namely thin-film SOFC (TF-SOFC) fabricated on porous anode support, have been usually adopted for sufficient power density even at this temperature regime.A ceramic-metal composite (cermet) of Ni and YSZ (yttria-stabilized zirconia) is the most common anode or anode functional layer (AFL) material of TF-SOFC, because Ni-YSZ cermet has reasonable cost, chemical stability in a reducing atmosphere at high temperature, and similar thermal expansion coefficient to that of YSZ electrolyte. Various thin-film techniques have been reported for AFL fabrication, e.g., pulsed laser deposition (PLD), RF sputtering, etc. Among those, reactive sputtering method, which uses metal target in controlled gas conditions (e.g., oxygen condition for oxide deposition), is a versatile method to deposit various types of thin films with fast deposition speed (up to > 1um/hr), which is beneficial in manufacturability regarding the usual thickness range of AFL (a few microns).In this study, therefore, we studied physical and chemical properties of nanocomposite Ni-YSZ films fabricated by using the reactive sputtering deposition technique, focusing on the effect of sputter parameters. In particular, Oxygen partial pressure significantly affects deposition speed, surface morphology, composition, electrochemical performance, and thermal durability at 450 ℃. It is shown that excessive O2/Ar partial pressure ratio (> 0.2) significantly reduces the deposition speed by approximately one order of magnitude compared to the lower ratio case. In morphological analysis, O2/Ar partial pressure ratio affect nano-structured of anode, after annealing process at 1200℃ with air. Also, the Ni-YSZ anode sputtered at the environment of O2/Ar partial pressure ratio of 0.1 sample shows the lowest activation resistance when applied to LT-SOFC’s anode. The O2/Ar 0.5 sample shows surface Ni agglomeration due to high NiO-to-metallic Ni ratio.

An Integrated Flow–Electric–Thermal Model for a Cylindrical Li‐Ion Battery Module with a Direct Liquid Cooling Strategy

An integrated model is constructed for a Li‐ion battery module composed of cylindrical cells by coupling individual first‐order equivalent circuit models (ECMs) with a 3D heat transfer model, also considering the fluid flow dynamics of the applied cooling liquid, and bench‐marked against experimental data. This model simulates a representative unit of the battery module with direct liquid cooling in a parallel configuration. Instead of assigning specific values to the featured parameters involved in the ECMs, they are here defined as 4D arrays. This makes it possible to simultaneously consider the effect of the state of charge, current rate, and temperature on the battery dynamics, making the model more adaptive, versatile, and connectable to the battery cell electrochemistry. According to the simulation results, the model employing state‐dependent battery properties fits better with the experimental cooling results. Additionally, the temperature uniformity of the module with a parallel cooling configuration is improved compared to a serial configuration. However, the increase of the absolute core temperature cannot be directly controlled by the surface cooling due to the slow heat transport rate across the battery material. The simulations also provide directions for the modification of module design, to the potential benefit of battery pack developers.

Testing the applicability of zircon U‐Pb dating as a provenance method in a highly altered river system, Mississippi‐Missouri River, USA

AbstractSediment transport through the Mississippi River affects the lives and economies of millions of people along its course, so that understanding the controls on this process is of scientific and societal importance. Detrital U‐Pb geochronology, supported by grain size and major element data, can be a robust tool for constraining sediment provenance in clastic sedimentary systems that has been applied to the Mississippi. However, sediment storage and reworking can complicate interpretation, and this can be further exacerbated by anthropogenic alteration via the construction of levees, dams, locks and river diversion projects. In this study, we date zircons from the modern Mississippi River and compare them to previously acquired data to illustrate the difference between samples taken from the same catchment in order to better understand the downstream propagation of the modern detrital zircon signal. The modern Mississippi River and tributary systems show distinct similarities and are comparable between studies when samples are not too far separated (&lt;100 km). We estimate that the Arkansas River is more important than previously proposed, at least in terms of sand supply, supplying 7%–11% of the total load. The largest supplier of sediment to the Mississippi is the Missouri River (33%–43%), which derives much of its sediment from sedimentary rocks in the foredeep deposited during the Sevier and Laramide events. Anthropogenic alteration of the modern river system can be seen in the downstream propagation of a Red River cut‐off signal following construction of the “River Control Structure”, implying slow zircon transport rates (&lt;2.8 km/year). Differences in the degree of recycling caused by sampling locations and low numbers of grains introduce significant uncertainties to mixing calculations.

Radical–Radical Cross-Coupling Assisted N–S Bond Formation Using Alternating Current Protocol

Radical–Radical Cross-Coupling Assisted N–S Bond Formation Using Alternating Current Protocol

Experimental investigation into the disturbance of the Sm-Nd isotopic system during metasomatic alteration of apatite

In order to understand the effect of fluid-induced alteration on the Sm-Nd isotope systematic in apatite, a series of fluid/apatite reaction experiments, which involve reacting the well-characterized Durango fluorapatite with CO2 ± CaCO3-, NaF- or HCl ± CaCl2-bearing solutions with a known 143Nd/144Nd ratio, were conducted at 800 or 600 °C at 200 MPa. In experiments involving CO2-H2O ± CaCO3, the fluorapatite grains did not react with the solution, such that the Sm-Nd isotopic system was undisturbed. In experiments involving NaF, the fluorapatite grains were partially to completely altered. During the alteration process, REE mobilization was retarded via the coupled substitution Na+ + REE3+ = 2Ca2+ due to the high activity of Na in the fluid. Because the REE were not mobilized, the 147Sm/144Nd ratios remained constant. However, the 143Nd/144Nd ratios were slightly altered due to small degrees of Nd isotopic exchange between the fluid and fluorapatite. In experiments involving HCl ± CaCl2, the fluorapatite grains were partially altered, and the REE were variably leached from the altered fluorapatite. Leaching of REE was accompanied by an increase in the 147Sm/144Nd ratio, which is related to the higher compatibility of Sm in the fluorapatite structure and the lower mobility of Sm in Cl-bearing fluids. Although the 147Sm/144Nd ratios were strongly affected, the 143Nd/144Nd ratios experienced only a small change, which is related to the slow rate of transport for Nd between reaction-front fluid and bulk fluid. In general, the experimental results indicate that fluid chemistry is the main factor controlling the response of the Sm-Nd isotopic system to fluid-induced alteration. The 147Sm/144Nd ratio of apatite can be highly modified, and in turn the Sm-Nd isotopic system is disturbed when the fluids are rich in ligands that are able to facilitate REE mobilization and fractionation. Therefore, a thorough evaluation of the fluid-rock history, along with the conjectured fluid chemistry, is necessary before using apatite Sm-Nd isotopes as geological indicators.

Metabolism and interactions of Ivermectin with human cytochrome P450 enzymes and drug transporters, possible adverse and toxic effects.

The review presents metabolic properties of Ivermectin (IVM) as substrate and inhibitor of human P450 (P450, CYP) enzymes and drug transporters. IVM is metabolized, both in vivo and in vitro, by C-hydroxylation and O-demethylation reactions catalyzed by P450 3A4 as the major enzyme, with a contribution of P450 3A5 and 2C9. In samples from both in vitro and in vivo metabolism, a number of metabolites were detected and as major identified metabolites were 3″-O-demethylated, C4-methyl hydroxylated, C25 isobutyl-/isopropyl-hydroxylated, and products of oxidation reactions. Ivermectin inhibited P450 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, and CYP3A4 with IC50 values ranging from 5.3 μM to no inhibition suggesting that it is no or weak inhibitor of the enzymes. It is suggested that P-gp (MDR1) transporter participate in IVM efflux at low drug concentration with a slow transport rate. At the higher, micromolar concentration range, which saturates MDR1 (P-gp), MRP1, and to a lesser extent, MRP2 and MRP3 participate in IVM transport across physiological barriers. IVM exerts a potent inhibition of P-gp (ABCB1), MRP1 (ABCC1), MRP2 (ABCC2), and BCRP1 (ABCG2), and medium to weak inhibition of OATP1B1 (SLC21A6) and OATP1B3 (SLCOB3) transport activity. The metabolic and transport properties of IVM indicate that when IVM is co-administered with other drugs/chemicals that are potent inhibitors/inducers P4503A4 enzyme and of MDR1 (P-gp), BCRP or MRP transporters, or when polymorphisms of the drug transporters and P450 3A4 exist, drug–drug or drug–toxic chemical interactions might result in suboptimal response to the therapy or to toxic effects.

H2Ti3O7 Nanorods Synthesized H Cation-exchange in Na2Ti3O7 for Stable Sodium Storage

To overcome poor interfacial stability and slow ion transport rate of Na2Ti3O7, H2Ti3O7 nanorods are synthesized by acidification of Na2Ti3O7 with low concentration of strong acid. The dominated pseudo-capacitive behavior significantly improved rate capability with fast electron and ion storage kinetics. When used as anode for sodium-ion batteries, H2Ti3O7 delivers a stable specific capacity of 103.5 mAh g-1 after 500 cycles with a capacity retention rate of 49.3%, and high rate performance (70.5 mAh g-1 at 2 A g-1).

Transbuccal delivery of metal complexes of isoniazid as an alternative to overcome antimicrobial resistance problems.

In isolated isoniazid (INH)-resistant strains, deletion or mutations in thekatGgene have been identified, which result in loss of catalase-peroxidase activity. This enzyme plays a key role in the activation of this prodrug. As an alternative, the coordination of the INH to metal complexes has been purposed to activate it regardless of enzyme functionality. Although pentacyanido(isoniazid)ferrate(II) complexes have shown to be effective against resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, low oral bioavailability was found. In this context, buccal mucosa was selected as an alternative route to the metal complex delivery. Moreover, oral manifestations of tuberculosis(TB) have been observed in some patients, particularly when resistant strains are present, and no therapeutic options are currently available on the market. Pentacyanidoferrate (PCF-INH) and Prussian-blue (PB-INH) complexes were initially prepared and characterized, followed by buccal permeability studies in Franz-type diffusion cells. The electrochemical potential of the complexes demonstrated their ability to self-activate. Job's method suggested the presence of structural defects in PB-INH complexes, which was correlated with permeability results. In fact, PB-INH showed a higher dissociation rate in salt-rich aqueous medium and thus a high transport rate of INH through the buccal mucosa. Its passage through the tissue would not be possible due to the high molecular size. PCF-INH, in turn, presented a lower dissociation rate in the salt-rich aqueous medium, justifying its slower transport rate through the tissue. Taken together, these results suggest that INH-based metal complexes may be efficiently administered through the buccal route, impacting on both oral bioavailability and microbial resistance.

On the Usefulness of Two Small-Scale In Vitro Setups in the Evaluation of Luminal Precipitation of Lipophilic Weak Bases in Early Formulation Development.

A small-scale biphasic dissolution setup and a small-scale dissolution-permeation (D-P) setup were evaluated for their usefulness in simulating the luminal precipitation of three lipophilic weak bases—dipyridamole, ketoconazole and itraconazole. The transition from the gastric to intestinal environment was incorporated into both experimental procedures. Emulsification during the biphasic dissolution experiments had a minimal impact on the data, when appropriate risk mitigation steps were incorporated. Precipitation parameters estimated from the in vitro data were inputted into the Simcyp® physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling software and simulated human plasma profiles were compared with previously published pharmacokinetic data. Average Cmax and AUC values estimated using experimentally derived precipitation parameters from the biphasic experiments deviated from corresponding published actual values less than values estimated using the default simulator parameters for precipitation. The slow rate of transport through the biomimetic membrane in the D-P setup limited its usefulness in forecasting the rates of in vivo precipitation used in the modelling of average plasma profiles.

Quantifying secondary transport at single-molecule resolution.

Secondary active transporters, which are vital for a multitude of physiological processes, use the energy of electrochemical ion gradients to power substrate transport across cell membranes1,2. Efforts to investigate their mechanisms of action have been hampered by their slow transport rates and the inherent limitations of ensemble methods. Here we quantify the activity of individual MhsT transporters, which are representative of the neurotransmitter:sodium symporter family of secondary transporters3, by imaging the transport of individual substrate molecules across lipid bilayers at both single- and multi-turnover resolution. We show that MhsT is active only when physiologically oriented and that the rate-limiting step of the transport cycle varies with the nature of the transported substrate. These findings are consistent with an extracellular allosteric substrate-binding site that modulates the rate-limiting aspects of the transport mechanism4,5, including the rate at which the transporter returns to an outward-facing state after the transported substrate is released.

Imaging Molecular Transport Through the Membrane of a Living Cell

We demonstrate that time-resolved second-harmonic (SH) light scattering, when applied as an imaging modality, can be used to spatially resolve the adsorption and transport rates of molecules diffusing across the membrane in a living cell. As a representative example, we measure the passive transport of the small amphiphilic ion, malachite green, across the plasma membrane in living human dermal fibroblast cells. Analysis of the time-resolved SH images reveals that membrane regions enduring higher stress exhibit slower transport rates. It is proposed that this stress-transport relation is a result of local enrichment of membrane rigidifiers as part of the cell response to maintain membrane integrity under high strain.

Evaluating the Functional Pore Size of Chloroplast TOC and TIC Protein Translocons: Import of Folded Proteins.

The degree of residual structure retained by proteins while passing through biological membranes is a fundamental mechanistic question of protein translocation. Proteins are generally thought to be unfolded while transported through canonical proteinaceous translocons, including the translocons of the outer and inner chloroplast envelope membranes (TOC and TIC). Here, we readdressed the issue and found that the TOC/TIC translocons accommodated the tightly folded dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) protein in complex with its stabilizing ligand, methotrexate (MTX). We employed a fluorescein-conjugated methotrexate (FMTX), which has slow membrane transport rates relative to unconjugated MTX, to show that the rate of ligand accumulation inside chloroplasts is faster when bound to DHFR that is actively being imported. Stromal accumulation of FMTX is ATP dependent when DHFR is actively being imported but is otherwise ATP independent, again indicating DHFR/FMTX complex import. Furthermore, the TOC/TIC pore size was probed with fixed-diameter particles and found to be greater than 25.6 Å, large enough to support folded DHFR import and also larger than mitochondrial and bacterial protein translocons that have a requirement for protein unfolding. This unique pore size and the ability to import folded proteins have critical implications regarding the structure and mechanism of the TOC/TIC translocons.

Proton Stabilization and Conduction Pathway in the Matrix Protein M2

The transmembrane channel M2 of Influenza A virus plays a critical role in its lifecycle, and serves primarily to acidify the viral interior for the release of ribonucleoproteins prior to viral-endosomal membrane fusion. Protons enter the channel via a narrow opening from the viral exterior and diffuse to the His37 tetrad, where multiple protonation events ultimately lead to conformational changes in the protein and dissociation of proton to the viral interior. The slow rate of proton transport in M2 suggests that conformational change of the protein is the rate-limiting step of the conduction process. However, it remains unclear whether these conformational changes in the protein are intimately correlated for the conduction of protons. We address this question by correlating conformational changes as measured by PET FCS with proton transport rates of full-length M2 measured using a well-established vesicle flux assay. Furthermore, recent computational models and high-resolution X-ray structures have shown that protons diffuse along Grotthuss water wires that line the inside of the pore leading to the His37 tetrad. While these studies offer insight into the proton conduction pathway through the channel, little is understood about the distribution and dynamics of the water within the pore. Using two-dimensional infrared (2D IR) spectroscopy, we aim to probe the dynamics of water and pore-lining carbonyls in the M2 channel. In applying 2D IR spectroscopy on microcrystals of isotopically labeled M2, we can probe the pH-dependent changes in the distribution and dynamics of the water independent of changes to the population of conformational states of the protein. This methodology will allow us to dissect the effects of pH and the protonation state of the His37 tetrad on the hydrogen-bonding network inside the channel.

Metabolic Measurements of Nonpermeating Compounds in Live Cells Using Hyperpolarized NMR.

Hyperpolarization by dissolution dynamic nuclear polarization (D-DNP) has emerged as a technique for enhancing NMR signals by several orders of magnitude, thereby facilitating the characterization of metabolic pathways both in vivo and in vitro. Following the introduction of an externally hyperpolarized compound, real-time NMR enables the measurement of metabolic flux in the corresponding pathway. Spin relaxation however limits the maximum experimental time and prevents the use of this method with compounds exhibiting slow membrane transport rates. Here, we demonstrate that on-line electroporation can serve as a method for membrane permeabilization for use with D-DNP in cell cultures. An electroporation apparatus hyphenated with stopped-flow sample injection permits the introduction of the hyperpolarized metabolite within 3 s after the electrical pulse. In yeast cells that do not readily take up pyruvate, the addition of the electroporation pulse to the D-DNP experiment increases the signals of the downstream metabolic products CO2 and HCO3-, which otherwise are near the detection limit, by 8.2- and 8.6-fold. Modeling of the time dependence of these signals then permits the determination of the respective kinetic rate constants. The observed conversion rate from pyruvate to CO2 normalized for cell density was found to increase by a factor of 12 due to the alleviation of the membrane transport limitation. The use of electroporation therefore extends the applicability of D-DNP to in vitro studies with a wider range of metabolites and at the same time reduces the influence of membrane transport on the observed conversion rates.

Synergistic effects of ASR and fly ash on the corrosion characteristics of RC systems

This research investigated the synergistic effects of fly ash and aggregate reactivity on chloride transport and time to corrosion. Specimens containing fly ash replacement levels of 0, 20, and 40% by weight with and without reactive aggregate were exposed to wetting/drying cycles. Expansion, corrosion potential, and macrocell current were measured monthly until corrosion of the embedded reinforcement initiated. The results indicate that inclusion of fly ash in specimens containing non-reactive aggregate results in lower apparent diffusion coefficient values (Da) and lower critical chloride threshold values (CT) in concrete. The benefits from the lower Da values are more significant than the disbenefits from the reduction in CT when assessing time to corrosion initiation. Specimens containing reactive aggregate and 20% fly ash exhibited longer times to corrosion initiation than specimens containing 40% fly ash. Results indicate that the ASR gel resists the transport of chlorides and the formation of small amounts of ASR gel in the specimens containing 20% fly ash reactive aggregate results in slower transport rates and longer times to corrosion initiation.

Supercapacitive Properties of 3D-Arrayed Polyaniline Hollow Nanospheres Encaging RuO2 Nanoparticles.

A major limitation of polyaniline (PANi) electrodes for supercapacitors is the slow rate of ion transport during redox reactions and the resultant easy saturation of areal capacitance with film thickness. In this study, three-dimensionally (3D)-arrayed PANi nanospheres with highly roughened surface nanomorphology were fabricated to overcome this limitation. A hierarchical nanostructure was obtained by polymerizing aniline monomers on a template of 3D-arrayed polystyrene (PS) nanospheres and appropriate oxidative acid doping. The structure provided dramatically increased surface area and porosity that led to the efficient diffusion of ions. Thus, the specific capacitance (Csp) reached 1570 F g-1, thereby approaching a theoretical capacitance of PANi. In addition, the retention at a high scan rate of 100 mV s-1 was 77.6% of the Csp at a scan rate of 10 mV s-1. Furthermore, 3D-arrayed hollow PANi (H-PANi) nanospheres could be obtained by dissolving the inner PS part of the PS/PANi core/shell nanospheres with tetrahydrofuran. The ruthenium oxide (RuO2) nanoparticles (NPs) were also encaged in the H-PANi nanospheres by embedding RuO2 NPs on the PS nanospheres prior to polymerization of PANi. The combination of the two active electrode materials indicated synergetic effects. The areal capacitance of the RuO2-encaged PANi electrode was significantly larger than that of the RuO2-free PANi electrode and could be controlled by varying the amount of encaged RuO2 nanoparticles. The encagement could also solve the problem of detachment of RuO2 electrodes from the current collector. The effects of the nanostructuring and RuO2 encagement were also quantitatively analyzed by deconvoluting the total capacitance into the surface capacitive and insertion elements.