SLA Literature Research Articles

Using ideological disjunctures to explain lack of investment in learning the Icelandic language through formal methods

ABSTRACT The sociolinguistic situation in Iceland has changed substantially over the past 25 years because of immigration, use of English, and deepening enmeshment in global economic systems. As part of a study of integration in rural Icelandic communities, participants who had migrated to Iceland were asked about their process of learning Icelandic. Questions explored whether they had engaged in formal learning methods, their thoughts about the language, its role in society and in their lives. In interviews from one rural area, several reported that they have forgone attending language courses and do not feel compelled to learn Icelandic formally, despite having entered a community in which it is believed that immigrants must learn the language to engage with society and the most common way of doing so is through formal courses. Participants’ views on the language and ways of learning it relate to ideological disjunctures that create a porous ideological environment and positive responses by Icelanders to their informal learning practices. We examine how using the potentials provided by ideological disjunctures and encouragement for using informal means offer some immigrants agency to embrace an identity of one not pursuing formal language instruction, a group not commonly considered in the SLA literature.

Raising learner awareness of L2 writing spaces: supporting researchers, teachers, and learners through system mapping

This work examines how system mapping, an established exploratory and analytic technique grounded in complex dynamic systems theory, can operate as a heuristic to increase learners’ language awareness (LA) and develop their L2 writing proficiency. Accordingly, this study addresses repeated calls in the instructed SLA literature for effective research methods that directly serve learners at the point of enquiry. That is, although related research often foregrounds learners and pedagogy rather than theoretical abstraction, questions remain about how participants benefit at the time data are collected. To explore this concern, this work engaged system mapping through a LA pedagogy and followed two intact university classes (one using system mapping, and one not: N = 30) over one semester. Comparative quantitative and qualitative analyses of learners’ narrative reflections and academic essay writing highlighted that system mapping facilitates the raising of ­learners’ LA in service of developing their writing. This work demonstrates how system mapping capitalizes on learning theories that support image-schematic interventions and underscores how system mapping engages with and advances LA pedagogy in service of researchers, instructors, and students alike.

Development of written L2 French: a longitudinal study of learners in the Norwegian school context

This paper presents a longitudinal multiple case study that focused on the development of the written interlanguage of four learners over their three years of learning French as a second language (L2) in upper secondary school in Norway. The development of macro-level syntactic complexity and the development of micro-level measures of accuracy in morphosyntactic features specific to written French were examined. In order to trace development of syntactic complexity, we used two well-established measures in the SLA literature: T-unit length and the number of dependent clauses per T-unit (Wolfe-Quintero et al., 1998; Verspoor et al., 2017), whereas the morphosyntactic features representing the basis for our analysis of accuracy were gender and number in the noun phrase in French. The results illustrated that the written French of all four learners clearly became more syntactically complex over the three years of the study. As regards the development at the morphosyntactic level, progress was less straight forward in the individual learners, and the developmental tendencies varied according to the nature of the features studied.

Le soi de l’apprenant d’une langue étrangère : adaptation de certaines théories psychologiques en didactique de langues

As an interdisciplinary science, SLA studies are receptive to ideas formulated in other disciplines. Although the relevance of psychology for SLA is often underestimated, its influence has recently grown with the advent of neurosciences and the increased interest in learner variables. One f concept from psychology that is potentially interesting is theories of the self, some of which have recently been adapted into research on foreign language learner motivation. In this article, we examine two particular psychological concepts (possible selves and self-discrepancy) as sources of an influential L2 motivation model – Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System – which is very little debated in French SLA literature. We outline the main points of the three theories, analyse them and try to assess the adaptation process. As in any case of transfer between disciplines, the source theories are altered, but the result has proven a meaningful and enriching addition to studies of L2 motivation.

Investigating teachers’ perceptions of syntactic complexity in L2 academic writing

This paper aims to investigate how L2 teachers perceive syntactic complexity in L2 writing, and to what extent teachers’ judgements are related to current theoretical views. The main reason for conducting the study is that the majority of studies that have investigated the development of syntactic complexity in L2 have been grounded in hypothesis-testing research; few studies, however, have explored whether teachers’ perspectives on syntactic complexity reflect the development of syntactic complexity as hypothesised in the SLA literature. Two groups of language teachers (eleven of L2-Dutch and sixteen of L2-Italian) were asked to evaluate individually the syntactic complexity of a sample of argumentative texts written by L2 university students of, respectively, Dutch and Italian. In the panel discussion that followed, teachers discussed their motivation behind their assigned scores and the feedback they had proposed. The results revealed that teachers tended to focus primarily on accuracy and comprehensibility. When their comments were concerned with syntactic complexity, both similarities and differences (related to target language and writing context) emerged between Dutch and Italian. Teachers’ reflections appeared to be only partly aligned with existing theoretical views on syntactic complexity.

But first, let's think again!

On the basis of their review of studies, Mayberry and Kluender (2017) propose that the human language learning ability becomes severely compromised if it is not developed in tandem with brain development in early childhood, but that it functions more or less flawlessly, even in adulthood, if language acquisition had at one time proceeded according to the maturational timetable. Mayberry and Kluender therefore suggest that the critical period hypothesis (CPH) for language is unambiguously tied to the timing of L1 acquisition, but that its relevance to L2 acquisition is less clear, the implication being that the well-documented AoA effects in the SLA literature are due to non-maturational (i.e., psychological, experiential, cross-linguistic, etc.) causes.

How EFL Learners Fill in the Blanks of an X-test: Think-Aloud Protocol

Since SLA literature remains researchers unaware of the mental processes involved in the X-Test taking (in contrast to C-Test which there are plenty of available related studies), this article aims at exploring cognitive strategies that EFL learners may use while answering an English X-test, which like the C-Test has been modified, adapted and used in many research papers. To this aim, thirty EFL respondents from Mashhad, Iran, were randomly asked to answer a reliable and valid X-test. All of them participated in introspective methods of think-aloud and retrospective interviews during and after the test administration. To analyze the data only the exact word scoring procedure was employed. The results showed participants used various cognitive strategies in taking the X-Test. It was also revealed that respondents experienced more strategies when filling out an X-Test comparing to related literature of C-test, which could be an indicator of the importance job of cognition in X-Test taking. It is hoped that the article can shed light on the underling cognitive strategies that English language learners’ use, and provide a chance for educators who want to better understand the learners’ cognitive processes in order to assist them identify problems and improve their English instruction.

FORMULAIC SEQUENCE(FS) CANNOT BE AN UMBRELLA TERM IN SLA

The termformulaic sequence(FS) is used with a multiplicity of meanings in the SLA literature, some overlapping but others not, and researchers are not always clear in defining precisely what they are investigating, or in limiting the implicational domain of their findings to the type of formulaicity they focus on. The first part of the article provides a conceptual framework focusing on the contrast between linguistic or learner-external definitions, that is, what is formulaic in the language the learner is exposed to, such as idiomatic expressions or collocations, and psycholinguistic or learner-internal definitions, that is, what is formulaic within an individual learner because it presents a processing advantage. The second part focuses on the methodological consequences of adopting a learner-internal approach to the investigation of FSs, and examines the challenges presented by the identification of psycholinguistic formulaicity in advanced L2 learners, proposing a tool kit based on a hierarchical identification method.

Deconstructing the I and SLA in ISLA: One curricular approach

Instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) has been referenced in the larger field of the SLA literature for over two and a half decades. Currently, there are several theoretical underpinnings accounting for processes assumed to play a role in ISLA and quite an impressive number of studies have empirically addressed some aspect(s) of ISLA. Recently, a lengthy and relatively cohesive treatise of this substrand of SLA research in relation to both theoretical, empirical, and pedagogical perspectives has been published in two books (cf. Leow, 2015a; Loewen, 2015), and a new model of the L2 learning process in ISLA has been proposed (Leow, 2015a). These publications are timely and important given that the concept of ISLA not only needs to be clearly defined but also situated contextually. To this end, this article (a) revisits current definitions of ISLA in the SLA literature with the aim of identifying specific features of ISLA that underlie such definitions, (b) deconstructs ISLA by probing deeper into what comprises the terms instructed and SLA in ISLA, (c) provides a brief summary of the cognitive processes and variables postulated by the theoretical underpinnings of ISLA and pertinent empirical research, (d) recommends that ISLA be observed from one curricular approach together with its empirical and pedagogical ramifications, and (e) provides some measure of direction future ISLA research may follow.

BICS and CALP: Implications for SLA

The BICS/CALP dichotomy, proposed by Cummins, has attracted the attention of many educators, syllabus designers, and various educational systems involved in the education of minority migrant children. Though not immune to criticism, this distinction has solved some of the enigmas concerning the education of such children. Nevertheless, its relationship with SLA on the whole is rather under-researched. To meet such an end the researchers of this paper, following Kumaravadivelu’s (2006, p. xiii) suggestion concerning creating a “pattern which connects”, have tried to investigate the status of this dichotomy in the SLA literature.

The Multimodality of Corrective Feedback in Tandem Interactions

Language tandem interactions provide a unique collaborative learning environment, as each participant takes turns being the native and the non-native side of the dialogue (Brammerts & Calvert, 2003). Although corrective feedback (CF) has received considerable attention in SLA literature (Lyster & Ranta, 1997, Sheen & Ellis, 2011), relatively little is known about CF occurring in these non-institutional peer-to-peer native/non-native interactions. We hypothesize that participants will mobilize resources that they share despite their different mother tongues and L1 cultures, namely non-verbal ones (prosody, gestures). Based on the qualitative yet systematic analysis in ELAN of 4 video recordings of interactions between French and English native speakers from the SITAF corpus (Horgues & Scheuer, 2013), we analyze CF focus, CF type, and the multimodal resources used for CF. Our study shows that CF is a highly multimodal activity (more than 86% of the time), identifies the main non-verbal resources used for CF request, provision and uptake and analyses the participants’ consistent idiosyncratic multimodal CF strategies.

An exploration into L2 attitudes

The main aim of the paper is to point to the problem of the conception of the attitude construct in SLA research to date. Researchers examine attitudes due to their predictive values, i.e. the fact that they predict behaviour, so it is necessary that the attitude construct should be clearly determined, both theoretically and operationally. Our analysis shows that the attitude construct has frequently been overly simplified in the SLA literature and reduced to one of its dimensions (e.g. affective or motivational). The results also underline that non-compliance with the basic principles of investigating attitudes (i.e. the principle of complexity, compatibility and relevance) may lead to various problems that bring into question the results of some studies in the field of SLA. It is concluded that a positive attitude is not necessarily a signal that the behaviour will be performed, which is consistent with the contemporary attitudinal theory and the theory of planned behaviour that this paper adopts, but rather that intentions to behave in a certain way are the key factor in performing the behaviour (herein: mastering an L2). Finally, teachers may indirectly influence their students' achievement by shaping their intentions. Shaping students' intentions is significant because both teachers and students can have a direct impact on them, unlike many other components which are beyond anyone's influence (e.g. intelligence, a type of personality, aptitude etc).

“I Understood you, but there was this Pronunciation Thing…”: L2 Pronunciation Feedback in English/French Tandem Interactions

The role of corrective feedback (CF) in L2 development has been the topic of much discussion in SLA literature (see for example Sheen and Ellis 2011 for a recent overview). Researchers have focused their attention on CF provided either by language teachers or by fellow L2 learners, whereas relatively little is known about phonetic feedback offered in a non-institutional setting during peer-to-peer native/non-native interactions as is the case with tandem language learning. Tandem language exchanges represent a special learning environment, as each participant takes turns being the native and the non-native side of the dialogue. Thus, in contrast to the typical L2 learning setting, the hierarchical structure between the participants is fluid: the expert-novice power relationship evolves as the meeting progresses and the conversation switches from one language to the other. In order to see how the distinguishing characteristics of tandem learning (such as solidarity and reciprocity) shape the process of L2 phonetic development in their own specific ways, we collected an English-French Tandem Corpus as part of the SITAF project (Spécificités des Interactions verbales dans le cadre de Tandems linguistiques Anglais-Français), launched at the University of Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris 3 in October 2012. We gathered linguistic data – both video and audio recorded – from face-to-face conversational exchanges held by 21 pairs of undergraduate students, with each ‘tandem’ consisting of a native speaker of English and a native speaker of French. The dialogues and reading passages were recorded on two occasions separated by a 3-month interval. The present paper offers a preliminary analysis of L2 pronunciation feedback on several renditions of the same text (The North Wind and the Sun), given to the French speakers by their English tandem partners. The passage was produced by each French participant three times: (1) during the ‘monitored’ reading, which was supervised by the English-speaking partner and which led to (2) the ‘second reading’ in the course of the first recording session, and then (3) the ‘final reading’ performed during the second recording session 3 months later. Data analysis will allow us to address the following questions relating to the study of phonetic corrective feedback:
 - What is corrected by the native-speaking partner (henceforth NS)? Segmental or prosodic errors? Phonemic or allophonic deviations?- What is the corrective strategy adopted by the NS? Is it explicit correction, recast, or elicitation?- What is the learner’s uptake after receiving feedback?We hope that our data brings a valuable and fairly unique contribution to SLA research, helping to establish which errors get corrected and how it may have implications for setting priorities in L2 pronunciation teaching.

The Relationship between Listening Self-efficacy and Metacognitive Awareness of Listening Strategies

Recent studies on listening comprehension have focused on finding factors that help EFL learners become more proficient and successful listeners; however, the interrelationship among these factors has been taken for granted in the SLA literature. The aim of the current study thus was investigating Iranian EFL learners’ listening self-efficacy and its relationship with their metacognitive awareness of listening strategies. Three hundred and seventy-one high-school students participated in the study. They filled in English listening self-efficacy questionnaire (Renzhi, 2012) and Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (Vandergrift et al., 2006). Both questionnaires were administered along with a listening proficiency test (Preliminary English Test, 2010). The results revealed a positive and significant relationship between listening self-efficacy and metacognitive awareness of listening strategies in general. Further, listening self-efficacy was found to be significantly and positively related to planning-evaluation and problem solving strategies and inversely to mental translation strategies. As higher self-efficacy brings about more control over listening tasks and guarantees successful strategy use, particular attention should be devoted to the role of this construct in listening instruction research and practice.

Concurrent data elicitation procedures, processes, and the early stages of L2 learning: A critical overview

Given the current methodological interest in eliciting direct data on the cognitive processes L2 learners employ as they interact with L2 data during the early stages of the learning process, this article takes a critical and comparative look at three concurrent data elicitation procedures currently employed in the SLA literature: Think aloud (TA) protocols, eye-tracking (ET), and reaction time (RT). The section on each data elicitation procedure begins with a brief historical and descriptive account of its usage and application in the SLA literature to address cognitive processes as they occur during the early stages of the L2 learning process, followed by its strengths and some methodological issues that should be considered. Suggestions are provided for their usage in future studies investigating concurrent cognitive processes in L2 learning at these early stages of the L2 learning process.

Empowering The Language Learner: Language Learning Strategy Training And Self-Regulation In An EFL Classroom

The purpose of this paper is to illustrate how an understanding of the Good Language Learner models described in the SLA literature can be used to tailor and implement a program of learning strategy training and self-regulatory practices in the classroom to empower L2 learners in an EFL context. The paper begins by reviewing the various definitions and classification systems of language learning strategies prominent in the SLA literature. It then examines the evolution of the “good” language learner by specfically looking at the GLL in terms of what strategies they employ, the manner in which they utilize those strategies and what drives them to be proactive in their learning process. The author concludes by proposing a program of metacogntive strategy training and self-regulatory awareness practices for classroom implementation in order to increase the language learning effectiveness of students in a South Korean university.

The Effect of Intensive and Extensive Focus on Form on EFL Learners’ Written Accuracy

A number of Second Language Acquisition researchers argue that since focus on form facilitates second language development, therefore special attention to focus on form in the case of adult learners seems to be necessary. This area of research has been one of the hotly-debated issues in SLA literature. The main purpose of the present quasi-experimental study is to investigate the effects of intensive and extensive focus on form instructions on EFL learners' written accuracy. For the purpose of the study 40 learners of English at pre-intermediate level were chosen randomly as the participants of the study and assigned into two groups of experimental which received different types of instruction for 2 months. A narrative task and written production focused and unfocused tasks were employed to collect data from the participants. The collected written data was quantified in terms of the accuracy measure introduced by Ellis (2008).T-test was employed as the statistical means of analysis. The results of the study revealed significant differences between the performances of two groups in terms of the accuracy in focused written production task. The study carries significant implications for second language teachers, SLA researchers as well as task designers.

What word-level knowledge can adult learners acquire after minimal exposure to a new language?

Abstract Discussions about the adult L2 learning capacity often take as their starting point stages where considerable L2 knowledge has already been accumulated. This paper probes the absolute earliest stages of learning and investigates what lexical knowledge adult learners can extract from complex, continuous speech in an unknown language after minimal exposure and without any help. Dutch participants were exposed to naturalistic but controlled audiovisual input in Mandarin Chinese, in which item frequency and gestural highlighting were manipulated. The results from a word recognition task showed that adults are able to draw on frequency to recognize disyllabic words appearing only eight times in continuous speech. The findings from a sound-to-picture matching task revealed that the mapping of meaning to word form requires a combination of cues: disyllabic words accompanied by a gesture were correctly assigned meaning after eight encounters. Overall, the study suggests that the adult learning mechanism is a considerably more powerful than typically assumed in the SLA literature drawing on frequency, gestural cues and syllable structure. Even in the absence of pre-existing knowledge about cognates and sound system to bootstrap and boost learning, it deals efficiently with very little, very complex input.

On the Role of Phonological Processing in L2 Reading

This paper provides a review of ideas and research regarding the role of phonological processing as a bottom-up, component processing mechanism in second language reading comprehension. Firstly, it sketches a brief history of approaches and theoretical models towards L2 reading comprehension in the SLA literature. Secondly, it acknowledges the fact that with the undue dominance of top-down psycholinguistic models, the role of bottom-up processes in L2 reading has been systematically neglected. And finally an accumulated body of literature is presented which comprehensively delineates the studies carried out to examine the contributory role of phonological processing as a type of bottom-up proceesing in L2 reading.

Corrective Feedback and Teacher Development

This article examines a number of controversies relating to how corrective feedback (CF) has been viewed in SLA and language pedagogy. These controversies address (1) whether CF contributes to L2 acquisition, (2) which errors should be corrected, (3) who should do the correcting (the teacher or the learner him/herself), (4) which type of CF is the most effective, and (5) what is the best timing for CF (immediate or delayed). In discussing these controversies, both the pedagogic and SLA literature will be drawn on. The article will conclude with some general guidelines for conducting CF in language classrooms based on a sociocultural view of L2 acquisition and will suggest how these guidelines might be used for teacher development.