Skylark Alauda Arvensis Research Articles

Connection between ecological niche changes and population trends in the Eurasian Skylark (Alauda arvensis) breeding in lowland and mountain areas of Southern Europe

Population responses to environmental changes can often vary geographically and between environments, potentially as a consequence of differing niche dynamics. The Eurasian Skylark Alauda arvensis is an open‐habitat passerine bird that is declining throughout Europe, mainly due to agricultural intensification. We compared population trends (1992–2021) of the species across three sub‐regions of northern Italy characterized by different environmental conditions and human pressures: the Alpine sub‐region (less anthropized mountains), the Plain (strongly anthropized and intensively cultivated) and the Oltrepò (extensively cultivated hills), with changes in the realized Grinnellian niches over three decades. In each sub‐region, niche comparisons did not show divergence over the study. However, we found an overall reduction in niche occupancy over time. In the Alpine sub‐region, a reduction in niche occupancy in hayfields and pastures was not associated with population decline; indeed, we found an increasing population (+164%), probably because high availability of natural grasslands counteracted niche contraction. Conversely, in the Plain and Oltrepò sub‐regions, the observed population declines (−99% and −36%, respectively) are associated with a general reduction of niche occupancy in arable lands that represented the core of the niche in these ranges. In the Plain, the lack of alternative suitable habitats might have limited any opportunity for the species to colonize new environments. Conversely, in the Oltrepò, the less severe population decline is combined with increased niche occupancy in hayfields and pastures at higher elevations. The joint application of population trend analysis and niche modelling as well as the decomposition of population changes across different environmental contexts can contribute to a better understanding of ecological processes affecting population dynamics, supporting policy‐makers to implement targeted conservation strategies.

AVIAN DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE IN RELATION TO SEASON, LIVESTOCK PRESENCE AND VEGETATION COVER IN A MEDITERRANEAN COASTAL WETLAND

Coastal wetlands are considered as systems of high avian diversity and are usually used for livestock production throughout the world. In this study, the diversity and seasonal abundance of avian species were monitored for two years on a monthly basis in a coastal grazing land in Evros Delta (Greece). The effects of livestock (cattle) presence and different classes of vegetation cover on the number of bird species were also investigated. A total of 96 bird species belonging to 29 families were recorded. The most commonly encountered species was the Eurasian skylark Alauda arvensis. The cattle presence was not significantly correlated (p>0.05) with the abundance of recorded bird species. On the contrary, patches with vegetation cover 25.1 - 50.0% and 50.1 - 75.0 % were used by more bird species in relation to patches with cover ≤25.0% or >75.0%. We concluded that the use of livestock grazing to preserve the desired vegetation cover (25 – 75%) is a promising management tool.

Characteristics of the Avifauna in a Rice Field Dominated Rural Area, and Habitat Use by Grassland Birds in Western Hokkaido, Japan

Rural areas provide various habitats for birds, and some studies have revealed habitat associations in rural bird communities in Japan. Previous studies have primarily focused on waterbirds or the habitat values of abandoned farmland, thus little is known about the importance of cultivated land for rural bird communities. Therefore, in this study, I clarified the characteristics of the avifauna in a rural area of the Ishikari Plain in Shinshinotsu Village, Western Hokkaido, and examined habitat utilization of cultivated land by eight major grassland species; Bull-headed Shrike Lanius bucephalus, Eurasian Skylark Alauda arvensis, Black-browed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus bistrigiceps, Siberian Rubythroat Calliope calliope, Stejneger's Stonechat Saxicola stejnegeri, Chestnut-eared Bunting Emberiza fucata, Black-faced Bunting E. spodocephala, and Common Reed Bunting E. schoeniclus. I conducted bird surveys along three 2-km line-transect routes among rice fields with some wheat, non-wheat crop fields, and weedy areas from April to October from 2016 to 2018. I recorded a total of 51 species of three general types: grassland birds, residential birds, and water birds. Rice fields in this study areas were flooded during early to mid-May to mid to late August, however species-specific habitat utilization analyses revealed that a small number of Eurasian Skylark, Stejneger's Stonechat, and Chestnut-eared Bunting inhabited the rice fields during study periods other than the flooding season. A relatively large number of Eurasian Skylark was observed in wheat fields and non-wheat crop fields throughout the study period, and Stejneger's Stonechat and Chestnut-eared Bunting were temporarily observed in those habitats. The other five species only rarely observed in rice, wheat, or non-wheat crop fields, but all eight species were observed in weedy areas. The characteristics of the avifauna in this rural area of Western Hokkaido proved to be quite different from previous studies conducted in the Kanto Region of Honshu. For the conservation of biodiversity and birds in rural areas, it is necessary to investigate the avifaunal characteristics of various regions of Japan.

Using wing length for sexing Eurasian Skylark Alauda arvensis: examples from a British population

ABSTRACT The Skylark Alauda arvensis is a common, yet rarely ringed species. Outside the breeding season, determining the sex of individual birds is problematic. While previous studies have provided sexually dimorphic ranges of wing length, those based on accurate DNA sexing focus on Continental populations, which are subject to seasonal influxes of migrants. In Britain, Skylark is largely a sedentary species, and Continental guidelines on in-the-hand sexing might be inappropriate. Here we present a comparative analysis of morphometrics and DNA sexing for 137 individual Skylarks, to assess the accuracy of using wing length to sex trapped birds. We suggest that birds with wing measurements of 107–109 mm be classified as of ‘undetermined’ sex, with those below this range being classified as female and those above as male.

The 46th Annual Report of the California Bird Records Committee: 2020 Records

From its last report through 2020, the California Bird Records Committee reached decisions on 206 records involving 195 individuals of 67 species and two species groups, endorsing 180 records of 169 individuals. Especially notable records detailed in this report include those of California’s third Common Crane (Grus grus), third Bristle-thighed Curlew (Numenius tahitiensis), third Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatalis), third Eurasian Skylark (Alauda arvensis), fourth Chuck-will’s-widow (Antrostomus carolinensis), and fourth Fork-tailed Flycatcher (Tyrannus savanna).

Conservation potential of semi-natural habitats for birds in intensively-used agricultural landscapes

Agricultural intensification resulted in substantial loss of farmland biodiversity. Semi-natural habitats may be viewed as potential buffers of these adverse impacts, but a rigorous assessment of their capacity for supporting farmland biodiversity is lacking. In this study, we explored conservation potential of two different types of semi-natural habitats for birds in intensively-used agricultural landscapes – farmland hedges (i.e., linear strips of shrubby and tree vegetation) and open scrubland (i.e., scattered shrubs and abandoned orchards). Specifically, we tested whether the abundance and species richness of birds differ between these habitats considering various species traits, such as habitat affinity (i.e., forest, farmland and urban species), diet specialization (i.e., animal eaters, plant eaters, and omnivores) and conservation status (Species of European Conservation Concern). We found that open scrubland hosted on average 37.9 bird species and 122.6 individuals per 1 km2 of the transect, whereas farmland hedges hosted only 19 species and 61.8 individuals per 1 km2 of the transect. However, results have substantially changed if we considered the area of suitable habitat into account. More specifically, open scrubland hosted more bird species and individuals when we considered open habitat species and the area of open habitats, whereas farmland hedges had higher species diversity and individuals of woodland bird species when we considered the area of woodland habitats. Similarly, analyses of habitat affiliations of individual species corresponded to the whole-community patterns; and revealed that several woodland bird species were mainly associated with farmland hedges (e.g., Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs, Common Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos and Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla), whereas the open scrubland was preferred by open habitat bird species (e.g., Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra, Quail Coturnix coturnix and Skylark Alauda arvensis). These results demonstrate that semi-natural habitats, both open scrubland and farmland hedges, have large potential for promotion and conservation of bird communities within intensively used agricultural landscapes, as both may have represented suitable habitats for species with different ecological requirements. Therefore, management measures focused on the enlargement of the area of these habitats, in combination with suitable management (e.g., regulating the progress of natural succession in open scrubland; increasing structural diversity of existing farmland hedges), may substantially contribute to bird conservation within agricultural landscapes.

Applications of thermal imaging for bird surveys: examples from the field

ABSTRACT The West Midlands Ringing Group (WMRG) have been using thermal-imaging equipment since 2016 to locate elusive birds for ringing by night and by day, to survey roosting birds in reedbeds, to monitor nets at night and to check nest boxes for occupancy. The technique has not only transformed the catch rate for ringing surveys of birds such as Skylark Alauda arvensis, Woodcock Scolopax rusticola, Snipe Gallinago gallinago and Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus but also resulted in an increase in survey efficiency, a reduction in disturbance of birds and an improvement in the accuracy of counts for birds of conservation concern. Here we present case studies from WMRG’s work and an overview of the advantages, constraints and potential applications for the use of thermal imaging in ornithological surveys.

Grassland bird species in mountain pastures Zaprikraj and Zapleč in the southern Julian Alps, Slovenia

AbstractGrassland birds were surveyed in two mountain pastures (Zaprikraj and Zapleč) in the southern part of the Julian Alps, Slovenia. The survey was carried out during the mornings between 26 and 30 June 2005. Due to the incomplete survey (only one visit, no nocturnal or targeted surveys and late season survey), the surveyed birds’ breeding density is only a rough estimate. 167 pairs belonging to 12 species were counted, with Tree (average density of 1.64 p/10 ha) and Water Pipit (average density of 1.60 p / 10 ha) being the most abundant. Both were observed in all altitudinal belts. The highest density in individual altitudinal belt was calculated for Red-backed ShrikeLanius collurio(3.78 p/10 ha) and Water Pipit (3.61 p/10 ha). In well preserved grasslands in the study area, most species reached high breeding densities compared to other parts of Slovenia and all were recorded higher than during the 1992 survey, although still mostly within limits of the elevations elsewhere in Slovenia. Breeding density of SkylarkAlauda arvensisdecreased with the elevation. WhinchatSaxicola rubetra, Skylark and Red-backed Shrike used significantly gentler slopes, while Pipits showed no preference for particular slopes.

The Shetland Bird Survey: population trends for widespread breeding birds 2002–2019

ABSTRACT Capsule Population trends are estimated for the first time for 12 species based on Shetland Breeding Bird Survey data collected between 2002 and 2019. Aim To provide population trends for a selection of commoner breeding waders and passerines on the Shetland Isles, the most northerly region of the UK, which has historically been under-represented in national bird monitoring schemes. Methods One hundred and forty-five self-selected 1-km2 squares were surveyed between 2002 and 2019 using similar methods to the BTO/JNCC/RSPB Breeding Bird Survey (BBS), the main breeding bird monitoring scheme in the UK. Results Over 17 years, Eurasian Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus, Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus, and Common Redshank Tringa totanus populations declined whilst Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata and Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago showed no significant changes in their population trends. For passerines, Common Skylark Alauda arvensis and Northern Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe populations declined, whilst Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris, Common Blackbird Turdus merula, and House Sparrow Passer domesticus increased. Winter Wren Troglodytes troglodytes and Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis showed no significant population changes. Comparisons with BBS trends for the UK and for Scotland are provided. For Eurasian Curlew, Common Starling, and House Sparrow, trends were more favourable in Shetland than elsewhere in UK. Conclusion The Shetland Breeding Bird Survey provides useful trends for several bird species, which include important breeding numbers of Winter Wren and Common Starling (both endemic subspecies), as well as nationally important wader populations. We recommend increasing the number of survey squares sampled each year, which would increase the precision of population estimates. The inclusion of a random or stratified element to square selection would help to ensure that these trends are representative of the wider region.

A comparison of breeding bird populations inside and outside of European Badger Meles meles control areas

ABSTRACT Capsule Analyses of survey data reveal no clear effects of the removal of European Badger Meles meles, a top predator in Great Britain, on bird populations. Aims To investigate the effects of licensed Badger culling on bird populations in southwest England using ongoing monitoring data. Methods Breeding Bird Survey data were used to compare population growth rates inside and outside Badger cull areas in southwest England over a five-year cull period (2013–2017), following a five-year baseline period (2008–2012). Comparative analyses of population growth rates of ground-nesters and of other species were tested for potential influences of Badger predation. We also compared species richness and diversity before and during culling, in treatment and control areas. Results Most results were non-significant (48 of 58 species) but, where population growth rates were different (P < 0.1), they were higher for five species, and lower for seven, in cull areas. Ignoring significance, 33 population trends were more positive and 25 more negative within Badger cull areas. However, ground-nesting species, which were more likely to be sensitive to Badger predation, were not more responsive. Species richness declined significantly between pre-culling and culling periods in all areas, but diversity was unaffected and neither metric differed between treatment and control areas. Conclusion There was no evidence for broad or consistent effects that support the existence of causal effects of Badger removal. Results for Skylark Alauda arvensis and Lapwing Vanellus vanellus suggested positive and negative effects of the cull, respectively, for these potentially sensitive species. Management and subtle habitat composition differences between study areas, and small sample sizes, may have limited statistical power, but there was no evidence that this affected inference. Monitoring and evaluation must continue as culling continues and is expanded, potentially increasing study power. Future research could also evaluate the potential ecological and demographic mechanisms behind any effects on birds of Badger removal.

Density of Larks (Alaudidae, Aves) of the Semi-desert of the Trans-Volga Region in Connection with the Landscape Wetting Dynamics

The dynamics of the density of nesting pairs of five lark species (Alaudidae) living on the territories of the Mezhuzenskii and Uzeno-Dyurinskii Plains, on the northwestern tip of the Caspian Lowland, and in the semi-desert of the Aleksandrovo-Gayskii district of Saratov oblast, and its relationship with Selyaninov’s hydrothermal coefficient (HTC) are considered. This research was carried out annually on 40 fixed routes of 1 km each in the breeding period of the annual lark cycle from 2011 to 2019. It was established that the abundance dynamics trends were negative in four lark species, namely, the Calandra Lark (Melanocorypha calandra), the White-winged Lark (M. leucoptera), the Black Lark (M. yeltoniensis), and the Lesser Short-toed Lark (Calandrella rufescens); and were positive in the Skylark (Alauda arvensis). The calculated trend of HTC indicators for these territories demonstrates a 5.4% annual increase in the moistening of the semi-desert zone of our survey area. To assess the relationship of the density of different lark species to the values of the HTC, we calculated the Spearman correlation coefficients. When analyzing the data obtained, it was found that a high positive correlation of density with the HTC was observed for the Skylark, Calandra Lark, and Black Lark; no such relationship was found in the White-winged Lark, and a high negative correlation of the density of nesting pairs with the HTC was found in the Lesser Short-toed Lark. Based on our research, it can be assumed that moistening of the semi-desert territory is one of the main factors determining the abundance dynamics of larks. The heat–moisture ratio determines the level of vegetation and, accordingly, the quality of habitats for these land-nesting birds.

Using long-term datasets to assess the impacts of dietary exposure to neonicotinoids on farmland bird populations in England.

Over the last 20 years, a new group of systemic insecticides–the neonicotinoids—has gained prominence in arable systems, and their application globally has risen year on year. Previous modelling studies using long-term data have suggested that neonicotinoid application has had a detrimental impact on bird populations, but these studies were either limited to a single species or neglected to analyse specific exposure pathways in conjunction with observed population trends. Using bird abundance data, neonicotinoid usage records and cropping data for England at a 5x5 km resolution, generalised linear mixed models were used to test for spatio-temporal associations between neonicotinoid use and changes in the populations of 22 farmland bird species between 1994 and 2014, and to determine whether any associations were explained by dietary preferences. We assigned farmland bird species to three categories of dietary exposure to neonicotinoids based on literature data for species diets and neonicotinoid residues present in dietary items. Significant estimates of neonicotinoid-related population change were obtained for 13 of the 22 species (9 positive effects, 4 negative effects). Model estimates for individual species were not collectively explained by dietary risk categories, so dietary exposure to neonicotinoids via ingestion of treated seeds and seedlings could not be confirmed as a causal factor in farmland bird declines. Although it is not possible to infer any generic effect of dietary exposure to neonicotinoids on farmland bird populations, our analysis identifies three species with significant negative estimates that may warrant further research (house sparrow Passer domesticus, skylark Alauda arvensis and red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa). We conclude that there was either no consistent effect of dietary exposure to neonicotinoids on farmland bird populations in England, or that any over-arching effect was not detectable using our study design. The potential for indirect effects of insecticide use on bird populations via reduced food availability was not considered here and should be a focus for future research.

Recent and Predicted Changes in Habitat of the Eurasian Skylark Alauda arvensis Based on the Link between the Land Cover and the Field Survey Based Abundance Data

The European avifauna on agricultural land has been permanently diminished over the past few decades. This phenomenon is clearly connected with agricultural intensification and the recent land cover changes. The main aims of this study were to identify the land cover preferences of a farmland bird species, the Eurasian Skylark Alauda arvensis in Hungary and investigate the link between the recent trend of the abundance of this species and the land-cover change. We employed GIS and statistical methods to assess the link between the abundance of this species based on the Hungarian common bird monitoring database (MMM) and the spatial proportion of the Corine Land Cover (CLC) categories in different buffer zones with 300, 600 and 1200 m from the observation points. Based on the significant statistical connections, we could identify and select land cover categories that serve as habitats and land cover categories that this bird species does not inhabit. The land cover preference of the Eurasian Skylark, in case of some land cover category, is depending on the grain scale (circle radius distance from the observation points). In analyses arable lands has been omitted because this land cover type is the well-known habitat of the species. According to our results, the Eurasian Skylark prefers permanent crops (vineyards, fruit trees and berry plantations) inside 600m and 1200m buffer zones, and pastures inside 1200m buffer zones, while it does not prefer urban fabric areas and heterogeneous agricultural, forests, and wetlands or water bodies inside 300m and 600m, scrub and/or herbaceous vegetation associations (transitional woodland-shrub and natural grassland areas) inside the 600m and 1200m radius buffer areas. The identification of these regional (European level) land-cover categories allowed us to analyse the recent (1990–2012) and the predicted (2006–2050) characteristics of habitat changes of this bird species, associated with land cover change. Based on our results, we could estimate that the Skylark habitat will decrease by 188 560 ha between 2006–2050 in Hungary.

Occurrence of Eurasian Skylark Alauda arvensis territories in relation to urban area and heterogeneous farmland

ABSTRACTWithin heterogeneous arable habitats close to urbanized Vienna, Austria, Eurasian Skylarks Alauda arvensis occurred at slightly lower densities than in other mixed farmland areas and at a much lower density than would be found in natural habitats. Territory density was negatively correlated with the occurrence of roads, tracks and high-intensity agricultural cultivation, possibly due to the resulting increased disturbance by humans.

The effects of forest succession and grazing intensity on bird diversity and the conservation value of a Northern Adriatic karstic landscape

We studied the effects of different land uses on conservation value and bird diversity in a Northern Adriatic karstic landscape. Our research area was situated in SW Slovenia and was covered with dry pastures and meadows in different stages of forest sucession and with different grazing intensities. We surveyed birds in 2007 and 2012 using the line transect method, with 50.4 km being covered each year. In the analysis we divided the survey transects into 200 m tiles which were used as statistical units in the analysis. We then modelled conservation value, bird diversity and bird abundances with different land uses; we used boosted regression trees as a modelling tool. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that a distinct group of birds occurred on tiles with higher grazing intensity. The species in this group also had significantly higher abundances in 2012 than in 2007. Forest succession was the most important predictor of SPA conservation value (Special Protected Areas according to the Directive on the conservation of wild birds of the European Union) and had negative effect on it; grazing intensity had a unimodal positive influence on conservation value and was most beneficial at low intensity. The model for the European conservation value showed a rather low predictive power. Farmland bird diversity was also negatively affected by forest and positively by grazing intensity. For the four Natura 2000 species—protected species in the SPA Kras (Woodlark Lullula arborea, Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio, Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra and Skylark Alauda arvensis), forest cover also had a negative effect. Grazing intensity had a positive effect for Woodlark, Red-backed Shrike and Skylark. The highest SPA conservation value and farmland bird diversity could therefore be achieved in a landscape with as low a forest succession as possible and grazing present but at low intensity. We recommend inclusion of appropriate measures in the agri-environment schemes (CAP pillar II) of Rural Development Programmes of the countries in the region with similar areas. The payments should be sufficiently stimulative to reopen the large areas subject to forest encroachment in the Northern Adriatic hinterland.

Microbiome assembly of avian eggshells and their potential as transgenerational carriers of maternal microbiota.

The microbiome is essential for development, health and homeostasis throughout an animal's life. Yet, the origins and transmission processes governing animal microbiomes remain elusive for non-human vertebrates, oviparous vertebrates in particular. Eggs may function as transgenerational carriers of the maternal microbiome, warranting characterisation of egg microbiome assembly. Here, we investigated maternal and environmental contributions to avian eggshell microbiota in wild passerine birds: woodlark Lullula arborea and skylark Alauda arvensis. Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, we demonstrated in both lark species, at the population and within-nest levels, that bacterial communities of freshly laid eggs were distinct from the female cloacal microbiome. Instead, soil-borne bacteria appeared to thrive on freshly laid eggs, and eggshell microbiota composition strongly resembled maternal skin, body feather and nest material communities, sources in direct contact with laid eggs. Finally, phylogenetic structure analysis and microbial source tracking underscored species sorting from directly contacting sources rather than in vivo-transferred symbionts. The female-egg-nest system allowed an integrative assessment of avian egg microbiome assembly, revealing mixed modes of symbiont acquisition not previously documented for vertebrate eggs. Our findings illuminated egg microbiome origins, which suggested a limited potential of eggshells for transgenerational transmission, encouraging further investigation of eggshell microbiome functions in vertebrates.

Seed depletion and landscape structure affect aggregative response in two wintering passerine birds

ABSTRACTCapsule: Seed abundance but also seed depletion during winter modifies habitat use and aggregation behaviour of Eurasian Sky Lark Alauda arvensis and Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis.Aims: To investigate the effect of seed abundance on the density of two passerine birds, the Eurasian Sky Larks and the Meadow Pipit, at an agricultural landscape scale during winter.Methods: Bird counts as well as seed density measurements were carried out in winter to quantify the aggregative response of farmland birds to seed abundance from November to March.Results: Seed resources varied by a factor of ten between crop types, but declined so sharply over the winter that seed abundance was low and similar among crop types by late winter. Sky Larks selected for higher seed density plots, but only at the end of winter when the resources were the lowest. Conversely, Meadow Pipits did not show any aggregative response to seed abundance.Conclusion: These results show that an uptake of seed-rich habitats in agricultural landscape would be very beneficial for wintering granivorous birds, by fulfilling the late winter ‘hungry gap’. The inclusion of seed mixtures in habitats that attract high densities of birds and retain seeds until late winter is of primary interest.

Population trends of Goričko agricultural landscape birds

Abstract Due to numerous bird surveys in the past 20 years, the avifauna of Goričko is relatively well known. For some species, the very first national ecological researches were conducted in this area. The article summarizes all bird surveys so far. It presents population trends of farmland species which is one of the most threatened bird groups in Europe. Most of the qualifying species of this habitat that are protected within the Natura 2000 network have suffered a decline at Goričko, specifically Quail Coturnix coturnix, Scops Owl Otus scops, Hoopoe Upupa epops, Woodlark Lullula arborea and White Stork Ciconia ciconia. The number of breeding pairs of the latter has not changed, but its fecundity has decreased. Furthermore, populations of other farmland bird species have decreased, for example Skylark Alauda arvensis, Stonechat Saxicola rubicola, Serin Serinus serinus and Common Linnet Linaria cannabina, as well as butterfly populations and tracts of grassland habitat types. National agricultural and nature conservation policies are evidently inefficient in protecting the biodiversity of Goričko. The most probable cause for bird population decline is agricultural intensification, which manifests itself at Goričko as disappearance and intensification of meadows, land consolidation, degradation of traditional orchards and use of pesticides. As a result of land consolidation hedges, uncultivated strips between fields, individual trees and bushes and minority habitat types are disappearing, whereas the surface of arable fields is increasing. Nature conservation measures performed by the Public Institute Goričko Nature Park with the support of DOPPS – BirdLife Slovenia volunteers seem to be efficient, but are spatially and temporally constrained. For this reason, they cannot serve as a substitute for insufficient systemic financing which could be improved by substantive and financial reform of the agri-environmental scheme. Currently, a negligible percentage (1% in 2016) of Goričko is covered by agrienvironmental scheme measures with positive influence on qualifying species and habitat types. As a consequence, only an insignificant share of subsidies from the Rural Development Plan is used for nature protection at Goričko. If the system of agricultural subsidies remains unaltered, no improvement of the conditions for bird conservation at Goričko can be expected.

Are large fields of autumn wheat at Kvismaren, central Sweden, used as nesting and food search habitats by Skylarks Alauda arvensis?

The skylark Alauda arvensis population has declined in Sweden. The breeding in silage fields fails and the success in autumn crops is disputed. Therefore, I decided to study the skylark utilisation of autumn crop fields in Kvismaren, central Sweden. The largest accessible field was selected (40 ha) to get as tough conditions as possible for foraging. I could conclude that the nests were evenly placed, the youngsters developed normally and the occupancy was about 80 pairs or territories per km2. The skylarks searched for food as much inside as outside the large breeding field. The flight distances were on average 204 m and up to 550 m. The conclusion was that autumn crops are probably as good as spring crops regarding breeding habitat; potentially even better as the offspring fledged at least 1‒2 weeks earlier. One potential positive factor for the breeding was the occurrence of unsown tractor tracks (tramlines, 2.5% of the area) which were frequently utilised by the skylarks. Such tracks are commonly created nowadays in Sweden and may replace otherwise desired skylark plots.

The song of Skylarks Alauda arvensis indicates the deterioration of an acoustic environment resulting from wind farm start‐up

The rapid development of wind energy may have negative effects on bird populations, including collisions with turbines, displacement due to disturbance or habitat loss, indirect effects of reduced breeding success and barrier effects. This challenging conservation issue has attracted a great deal of interest, but the noise generated by turbines has been largely overlooked. Here, we studied acoustic behaviour of Skylarks Alauda arvensis in relation to wind farm start‐up to assess whether a change in song parameters can indicate a deterioration in the acoustic environment. We recorded territorial males displaying close to operating and non‐operating turbines and at a control site without turbines. In the following breeding season, we undertook replications at the same sites, except that the non‐operating turbines were now in operation. We found that Skylarks displaying at the wind farm were affected by wind turbine noise. Males singing close to operating wind turbines sang higher‐frequency songs than males from a control site and those that displayed near non‐operating turbines. In addition, an upward frequency shift in songs was observed when non‐operating turbines started to operate in the consecutive season. We therefore conclude that the frequency shift observed did not result from turbine presence, but from the noise they started to generate. This shows that a change in song parameters may reliably and within a relatively short time indicate a significant deterioration of the acoustic environment as a consequence of wind farm start‐up. This may help conservation biologists to identify species and populations that are particularly susceptible to wind farm noise.