Mechanical Properties Of Skin Research Articles

Skin mechanical properties and modeling: A review.

The mechanical properties of the skin are important for various applications. Numerous tests have been conducted to characterize the mechanical behavior of this tissue, and this article presents a review on different experimental methods used. A discussion on the general mechanical behavior of the skin, including nonlinearity, viscoelasticity, anisotropy, loading history dependency, failure properties, and aging effects, is presented. Finally, commonly used constitutive models for simulating the mechanical response of skin are discussed in the context of representing the empirically observed behavior.

Effect of Skin on Finite Element Modeling of Foot and Ankle During Balanced Standing

Experimental measurements of stresses and strains for lower extremity injuries (LEI) are invasive, and therefore, predictions require physiologically accurate 3D finite element (FE) models of the foot and ankle. In previous models, skin is typically neglected. However, experimental studies have shown that skin is much stiffer than soft tissue. In this study, the material sensitivity of skin on foot arch deformation is investigated. A finite element model of the foot is developed, incorporating bones, soft tissue, ligament, articulating surfaces, plantar aponeurosis, skin and plantar plate. Balanced standing is simulated without skin or with three different skin mechanical properties. By including different skin models, the foot static vertical stiffness, navicular displacement and plantar aponeurosis strain change significantly, when compared with the model without skin. The study shows that skin, showing a much stiffer behaviour than soft tissue, should not be neglected in the foot modelling. Further, the plantar plate considered in this model can give merit to modelling injuries such as plantar plate tearing.

Atomic force microscopy for biomechanical and structural analysis of human dermis: A complementary tool for medical diagnosis and therapy monitoring.

Skin mechanical properties are usually measured considering the entire skin thickness and very little is known about the mechanical behaviour of individual skin layers. We propose atomic force microscopy (AFM) as a tool to quantify nanoscale changes in the biomechanical properties and ultrastructure of human papillary dermis exposed to different mechanical and physical stimuli. Samples from 3 human skin biopsies were studied: one stretched by obesity, one subjected to a high level of sun exposure and normal skin as control. Slices of the papillary dermis layer were harvested at controlled depths from each skin biopsy and 25μm2 areas of each slice were imaged and D-periodicity of collagen fibres measured by AFM, together with their stiffness. Standard histological analysis was also carried out to correlate biochemical properties and their distribution with stiffness and topography. We obtained similar stiffness values between the sample affected by obesity and the control sample at any depth level into the dermis, while the sun-exposed sample presented a significantly lower stiffness. Additionally, all samples presented an increase in the stiffness at higher depths into the papillary dermis layer. Collagen fibres close to the epidermis of sample affected either by obesity and sun exposure-the former even more than the latter-are thicker and present a larger D-period than those in the control sample. Our results open the possibility to use structural and mechanical analysis based on AFM as a complementary tool for medical diagnosis and therapy monitoring.

Effects of age, hydration level, and cosmetic treatment on skin mechanical properties of Thai

Effects of age, hydration level, and cosmetic treatment on skin mechanical properties of Thai

Preparation of Artificial Skin that Mimics Human Skin Surface and Mechanical Properties.

We have developed an artificial skin that mimics the morphological and mechanical properties of human skin. The artificial skin comprises a polyurethane block possessing a microscopically rough surface. We evaluated the tactile sensations when skin-care cream was applied to the artificial skin. Many subjects perceived smooth, moist, and soft feels during the application process. Cluster analysis showed that these characteristic tactile feels are similar to those when skin-care cream is applied to real human skin. Contact angle analysis showed that an oil droplet spread smoothly on the artificial skin surface, which occurred because there were many grooves several hundred micrometers in width on the skin surface. In addition, when the skin-care cream was applied, the change in frictional force during the dynamic friction process increased. These wetting and frictional properties are important factors controlling the similarity of artificial skin to real human skin.

Allometric scaling of skin thickness, elasticity, viscoelasticity to mass for micro-medical device translation: from mice, rats, rabbits, pigs to humans

Emerging micro-scale medical devices are showing promise, whether in delivering drugs or extracting diagnostic biomarkers from skin. In progressing these devices through animal models towards clinical products, understanding the mechanical properties and skin tissue structure with which they interact will be important. Here, through measurement and analytical modelling, we advanced knowledge of these properties for commonly used laboratory animals and humans (~30 g to ~150 kg). We hypothesised that skin’s stiffness is a function of the thickness of its layers through allometric scaling, which could be estimated from knowing a species’ body mass. Results suggest that skin layer thicknesses are proportional to body mass with similar composition ratios, inter- and intra-species. Experimental trends showed elastic moduli increased with body mass, except for human skin. To interpret the relationship between species, we developed a simple analytical model for the bulk elastic moduli of skin, which correlated well with experimental data. Our model suggest that layer thicknesses may be a key driver of structural stiffness, as the skin layer constituents are physically and therefore mechanically similar between species. Our findings help advance the knowledge of mammalian skin mechanical properties, providing a route towards streamlined micro-device research and development onto clinical use.

Asporin-deficient mice have tougher skin and altered skin glycosaminoglycan content and structure

The main structural component of connective tissues is fibrillar, cross-linked collagen whose fibrillogenesis can be modulated by Small Leucine-Rich Proteins/Proteoglycans (SLRPs). Not all SLRPs’ effects on collagen and extracellular matrix in vivo have been elucidated; one of the less investigated SLRPs is asporin. Here we describe the successful generation of an Aspn-/- mouse model and the investigation of the Aspn-/- skin phenotype. Functionally, Aspn-/- mice had an increased skin mechanical toughness, although there were no structural changes present on histology or immunohistochemistry. Electron microscopy analyses showed 7% thinner collagen fibrils in Aspn-/- mice (not statistically significant). Several matrix genes were upregulated, including collagens (Col1a1, Col1a2, Col3a1), matrix metalloproteinases (Mmp2, Mmp3) and lysyl oxidases (Lox, Loxl2), while lysyl hydroxylase (Plod2) was downregulated. Intriguingly no differences were observed in collagen protein content or in collagen cross-linking-related lysine oxidation or hydroxylation. The glycosaminoglycan content and structure in Aspn-/- skin was profoundly altered: chondroitin/dermatan sulfate was more than doubled and had an altered composition, while heparan sulfate was halved and had a decreased sulfation. Also, decorin and biglycan were doubled in Aspn-/- skin. Overall, asporin deficiency changes skin glycosaminoglycan composition, and decorin and biglycan content, which may explain the changes in skin mechanical properties.

Application of enzyme preparations for extraction of berry skin phenolics in withered winegrapes

Postharvest withering of grapes strongly affects the content and extractability of phenolic compounds in the production of sfursat, fortified and passito wines. This work evaluated the effectiveness of enzymes applied individually and/or in multi-enzyme blends, on the extraction of anthocyanins, oligomeric flavanols and polymeric flavanols from withered grape skins during simulated maceration. The study was performed on Vitis vinifera L. cv. Nebbiolo and Barbera because of their different skin phenolic profile and cell wall composition. Our findings highlight that the relationship between skin mechanical properties (berry skin break force and energy) and extraction yield of phenolic compounds is variety dependent. Significant correlations were found between the skin softening associated with cell wall degradation and the extraction of anthocyanins and flavanols in Nebbiolo, for which polygalacturonase, individually or in multi-enzyme blends, plays an important role. In Barbera, the extractability of phenolic compounds was not affected by the presence of exogenous enzymes.

Moisture-Responsive Wrinkling Surfaces with Tunable Dynamics.

The wrinkle dynamics (such as reversibility and stability) of human skin are affected by the external stimuli, as well as the skin's structure and mechanical properties. Inspired by these tunable responses, three types of moisture-responsive wrinkle dynamics are achieved, for the first time, through a single film-substrate system. These dynamics include: (1) completely reversible wrinkles formation; (2) irreversible wrinkles formation I: the initially formed wrinkles can be permanently erased and never reappear; and (3) irreversible wrinkles formation II: once the wrinkles form, they can no longer be erased. The key to success is to control the stiffness and thickness ratios of the film and the substrate, and tailor the crosslink degree/gradient of the film to allow for moisture-dependent changes of modulus and swelling degree. These unique responsive dynamics motivate the invention of a series of optical devices triggered by moisture, including anticounterfeit tabs, encryption devices, water indicators, light diffusors, and antiglare films. This study also paves the road for further understanding of the skin wrinkling dynamics and manipulation.

Varietal heterogeneity of textural characteristics and their relationship with phenolic ripeness of wine grapes

The phenolic ripeness of grapes at harvest imparts important functions for high-quality red wine and might be highly related to the textural properties of berries. The textural characteristics of 20 wine grape cultivars were detected by puncture test and textural profile analysis (TPA); and their relationship with phenolic ripeness were determined in this study. Varietal heterogeneity in textural characteristics was clearly observed among the colored and white grapes. Thirteen colored varieties showed marked differences in phenol extractability indices. The cellular maturity index, related to anthocyanin extractability, was highly dependent upon berry skin thickness with a good equation of regression. The multiple correlation coefficient was 0.940. No significant difference in skin mechanical properties and TPA was found between colored and white cultivars. Grape variety showed a significant interaction with puncture position in terms of berry skin hardness for both colored and white berries. Principal component analysis demonstrated differences in textural properties among the wine grape cultivars. Three clear clusters of 20 varieties were differentiated based on the skin hardness at the side of the berry. The results of this study indicated that there are relationships between the textural characteristics of wine grapes, cellular maturity index, and seed maturity index at harvest.

Experimental study on tissue phantoms to understand the effect of injury and suturing on human skin mechanical properties.

Skin injuries are the most common type of injuries occurring in day-to-day life. A skin injury usually manifests itself in the form of a wound or a cut. While a shallow wound may heal by itself within a short time, deep wounds require surgical interventions such as suturing for timely healing. To date, suturing practices are based on a surgeon's experience and may vary widely from one situation to another. Understanding the mechanics of wound closure and suturing of the skin is crucial to improve clinical suturing practices and also to plan automated robotic surgeries. In the literature, phenomenological two-dimensional computational skin models have been developed to study the mechanics of wound closure. Additionally, the effect of skin pre-stress (due to the natural tension of the skin) on wound closure mechanics has been studied. However, in most of these analyses, idealistic two-dimensional skin geometries, materials and loads have been assumed, which are far from reality, and would clearly generate inaccurate quantitative results. In this work, for the first time, a biofidelic human skin tissue phantom was developed using a two-part silicone material. A wound was created on the phantom material and sutures were placed to close the wound. Uniaxial mechanical tests were carried out on the phantom specimens to study the effect of varying wound size, quantity, suture and pre-stress on the mechanical behavior of human skin. Also, the average mechanical behavior of the human skin surrogate was characterized using hyperelastic material models, in the presence of a wound and sutures. To date, such a robust experimental study on the effect of injury and sutures on human skin mechanics has not been attempted. The results of this novel investigation will provide important guidelines for surgical planning and validation of results from computational models in the future.

Elastin structure and its involvement in skin photoageing

Skin aging is a complex process that may be caused by factors that are intrinsic and extrinsic to the body. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation represents one of the main sources of skin damage over the years and characterizes a process known as photoaging. Among the changes that affect cutaneous tissue with age, the loss of elastic properties caused by changes in elastin production, increased degradation and/or processing produces a substantial impact on tissue esthetics and health. The occurrence of solar elastosis is one of the main markers of cutaneous photoaging and is characterized by disorganized and non-functional deposition of elastic fibers. The occurrence of UV radiation-induced alternative splicing of the elastin gene, which leads to inadequate synthesis of the proteins required for the correct assembly of elastic fibers, is a potential explanation for this phenomenon. Innovative studies have been fundamental for the elucidation of rarely explored photoaging mechanisms and have enabled the identification of effective therapeutic alternatives such as cosmetic products. This review addresses cutaneous photoaging and the changes that affect elastin in this process.

Characterization of needle-assisted jet injections

Hypodermic injections have been the standard for transcutaneous drug delivery for many years. However, needle phobia, pain, and risks of needle-stick injuries have manifested in poor patient compliance. Needle-free jet injections (NFJI) have been developed to address these drawbacks but the reliability of dose and depth of delivery have been limited by a lack of control over jet parameters, and by variability in the skin's mechanical properties among individuals. Moreover, the device size and cost have been restrained by the high pressure (>20MPa) required to penetrate the skin. Needle-assisted jet injections have been proposed to improve delivery reliability of conventional jet injectors by penetrating the skin with a short needle (<5mm) and thereby allowing jet delivery to a desired injection depth at a reduced pressure.This study characterized needle-assisted jet injections performed after first penetrating the skin with a 1.5mm needle, examining the effect of needle size on jet parameters, and evaluating injection performance in porcine skin. A voice-coil actuated jet injector was modified to incorporate needles of 30G, 31G and 32G. A series of pulse tests was performed to compare jet velocity and injection volume across the needle sizes, where it was found that the jet velocity and injection volume achieved with 32G needles were 13% and 16% lower, respectively, than with 30G. In contrast, there was no significant difference in jet velocity and injection volume between 30G and 31G needles, suggesting that a reduction of 10μm in the mean inner diameter of the 31G needle has minimal impact on jet velocity and injection volume.Injection studies performed in porcine skin revealed that injections driven by fluid pressures ranging between 0.8MPa and 1.4MPa were able to achieve substantial injectate penetration (~10mm) and delivery (~100μL) into subcutaneous fat regardless of needle size, in a period of 40ms. The required pressures are an order of magnitude lower than those used in NFJI, yet still maintain the high-speed nature of jet injection by achieving a delivery rate of 2.25mL/s. The lower pressures required in needle-assisted drug delivery can lead to reduced device size and cost, as well as reduced shear stresses during jet injection and can therefore minimise the potentially adverse effect of shear on the structural integrity of proteins, vaccines and DNA.

Correlation study between image features and mechanical properties of Han Chinese facial skin.

Mechanical properties are considered to be vital factors that influence skin physiology during ageing. Wrinkles and skin roughness are the two main features in aged skin. The purpose of this study is to characterize the relationship between facial skin mechanical properties and image features using quantitative methods. Two hundred and forty healthy male and female volunteers living in Shanghai, China (aged 20-70years), were examined in this study. Facial images were photographed by VISIA-CR. Wrinkle volume of middle forehead and skin roughness of upper cheek were analysed by Skin Surface Analyzer (SSA) software. Mechanical parameters at the middle forehead and upper cheek were measured using Cutometer® MPA 580 and Reviscometer® RVM 600. Skin wrinkles and roughness increased during ageing, where men have a higher level and earlier manifestation than women. Skin mechanical parameters R2, R5, R7 and RRT were found decreased with age. Moreover, mechanical parameters including R2, R7, RRT and anisotropy showed significant correlations with wrinkle volume and/or skin roughness. The facial image features including wrinkle volume and skin roughness are significantly correlated with skin elasticity and anisotropy, which could well describe the skin features of Han Chinese.

Polypropylene structural foams: Measurements of the core, skin, and overall mechanical properties with evaluation of predictive models

Relationships for the prediction of various linear mechanical properties of polymeric sandwich foams obtained in injection processes were studied in comparison with shear, tensile, and flexural tests. The samples were obtained by a core-back foam injection molding process that enables one to obtain sandwich materials with dense skins and a foamed core as revealed by the morphological analysis. Tensile, shear, and flexural moduli were investigated for the skin, the core, and the overall foamed structure. In addition, the Poisson’s ratio of the skin was also determined. The core properties were specifically analyzed by machining the samples and removing the skins. Tensile and shear properties of the core can be well described by the Moore equation. The tensile modulus can be calculated by a linear mixing rule with the moduli of the skin and of the core in relation to the thickness of the layers. Shear and flexural moduli are described by a linear mixing rule on the rigidity in agreement with the mechanics of beams. Tensile modulus, out-of-plane shear modulus, and flexural modulus can finally be predicted by the knowledge of only very few data, namely the tensile modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the matrix, the void fraction, and thickness of the core. The equations were proved to be physically meaningful and consistent with each other.

Relationship of subcutaneous tissue and mechanical properties of skin

Relationship of subcutaneous tissue and mechanical properties of skin

Influence of harvest day on changes in mechanical properties of grape berries

Changes in the composition, physical and mechanical properties occur in grape berries during the ripening process, but the heterogeneity of the grapes harvested at different ripening stages affects the reliability of the results obtained. The characterization of the mechanical properties of grape berries seems to be an important parameter for understanding grape ripening. In this work, these changes were studied in seven grapevine varieties (Riesling, Blaufränkisch, Pinot Noir, Cerason, Malverina, Laurot, and Hibernal) harvested during six consecutive weeks. Mechanical behaviour was measured using compression and puncture tests using of TIRATEST 27025 testing machine. Skin mechanical properties were evaluated using a puncture test carried out on the equatorial side. The dependence of these properties on the chemical composition has been evaluated. These parameters of force/time curves were studied by puncture test: the berry skin break force, the needle displacement at the skin break and the berry skin break energy. The crushing force, the plate displacement at the crushing strength and the berry crushing energy were studied from force/time curves by compression test. Results of the puncture test shows that there the skin break strength and the acidity content are monotonic functions of the time. A comparison of different varieties from the point of the value of the crushing force was obtained by vertical and transversal loading. The crushing force is monotonically decreasing function of the harvesting time like the break force evaluated at the puncture test. The correlation between the skin break strength and the sugar content is significant namely for the varieties: Hibernal, Riesling, Malverina, and Cerason.

Mechanical Properties of Skins of Sweet Cherry Fruit of Differing Susceptibilities to Cracking

Rain cracking of sweet cherry fruit (Prunus avium L.) may be the result of excessive water uptake and/or of mechanically weak skins. The objectives were to compare mechanical properties of the skins of two cultivars of contrasting cracking susceptibility using biaxial tensile tests. We chose ‘Regina’ as the less-susceptible and ‘Burlat’ as the more-susceptible cultivar. Cracking assays confirmed that cracking was less rapid and occurred at higher water uptake in ‘Regina’ than in ‘Burlat’. Biaxial tensile tests revealed that ‘Regina’ skin was stiffer as indexed by a higher modulus of elasticity (E) and had a higher pressure at fracture () than ‘Burlat’. There was little difference in their fracture strains. Repeated loading, holding, and unloading cycles of the fruit skin resulted in corresponding changes in strains. Plotting total strains against the pressure applied for ascending, constant, and descending pressures yielded essentially linear relationships between strain and pressure. Again, ‘Regina’ skin was stiffer than ‘Burlat’ skin. Partitioning total strain into elastic strain and creep strain demonstrated that in both cultivars most strain was accounted for by the elastic component and the remaining small portion by creep strain. Differences in E and between ‘Regina’ and ‘Burlat’ remained even after destroying their plasma membranes by a freeze/thaw cycle. This indicates that differences in skin mechanical properties must be accounted for by differences in the cell walls, not by properties related to cell turgor. Microscopy of skin cross-sections revealed no differences in cell size between ‘Regina’ and ‘Burlat’ skins. However, mass of cell walls per unit fresh weight was higher in ‘Regina’ than in ‘Burlat’. Also, the ratio of tangential/radial diameters of epidermal cells was lower in ‘Regina’ (1.86 ± 0.12) than in ‘Burlat’ (2.59 ± 0.15). The results suggest that cell wall physical (and possibly also chemical) properties account for the cultivar differences in skin mechanical properties, and hence in cracking susceptibility.

Assessment of Postharvest Dehydration Kinetics and Skin Mechanical Properties of “Muscat of Alexandria” Grapes by Response Surface Methodology

The dipping of berries in a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide during a short time was evaluated as pretreatment undertaken prior to convective dehydration of wine grapes. The impact of the sodium hydroxide content and dipping time on weight loss (WL) at different dehydration times was thoroughly assessed using central composite design (CCD) and response surface methodology (RSM). Furthermore, the effects of these two variables were also investigated on the skin mechanical properties of dehydrated grapes. The effect of these two pretreatment factors on the dehydration kinetics and skin hardness was satisfactorily fitted to regression models. The berry pretreatment with low sodium hydroxide contents (from 10 to 20 g/L) facilitated the dehydration process during the first 5 days when dipping times longer than 300 s were used. From the seventh day of dehydration, at which time the average WL% was close to 50, the highest values of WL% were obtained using intermediate sodium hydroxide contents and dipping times (around 45 g/L and 185 s, respectively). Because skin hardness affects the dehydration kinetics during postharvest withering, the strongest decrease in skin hardness corresponded to these last berry pretreatment conditions, whereas the greatest increase required the highest sodium hydroxide contents and longest dipping times. The quality of berries dehydrated may be influenced by the pretreatment conditions used, and the present study contributes to increase the knowledge on this effect to a better management of the alkaline pretreatment and dehydration process.

Skin Mechanical Properties and Hydration Measured With Mobile Phone Camera

Dehydration is known to lead to serious health conditions and diseases, and a convenient way to check one’s hydration level may help reduce risk of dehydration. A widely used method by clinicians is skin turgor test, which is based on the visual inspection of skin mechanical properties. The test does not require special equipment, but it lacks quantification and is hard to practice by non-experts. Here, we demonstrate the detection of hydration state based on analyzing skin mechanical properties with a mobile phone camera. The camera captures and quantifies the dynamic processes of skin stretching and relaxation related to hydration using two methods: 1) tracking of a mark drawn on the skin and 2) the natural skin texture change during the turgor test. Tests on a small cohort of human subjects have been carried to validate the methods.