Skilled Swimmers Research Articles

ФИЗИОЛОГИЧЕСКАЯ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА ГЕМАТОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ, БИОХИМИЧЕСКИХ ПАРАМЕТРОВ КРОВИ И СИМПАТО-ВАГУСНОГО БАЛАНСА У СПОРТСМЕНОВ ВЫСОКОЙ КВАЛИФИКАЦИИ

Aim. The aim of the work was to describe hematological biochemical parameters of blood and sympatho-vagal balance in elite (IMS, n = 12) and highly skilled swimmers (CMS, n = 23). Materials and methods. Hematological (n = 10) and biochemical (n = 11) parameters were determined with automatic analyzers from venous blood. The autonomic regulation of the heart was assessed by means of spectral analysis. Results. IMS swimmers had increased levels of RBC (+ 12.5 %, p < 0.01), Hb (+ 10.2 %, p < 0.01), MCHC (+ 9.7 %, p < 0.01) and Ht and decreased levels of MCV (–4.0 %, p < 0.01) and Leu (–17.4 %, p < 0.01) compared with the control group. CMS swimmers had decreased levels of MCV (–2.0 %, p < 0.05) and Lym (–19 %, p < 0.01) but increased levels of МСНС (+2.5 %, p < 0.05). Both groups of swimmers had decreased levels of IgM, IgA, triglycerides, glucose and increased levels of HDL-C. Elite swimmers had lower fibrinogen levels than those of the control group. In IMS athletes, LF/HF was increased (p < 0.01) and %HF was decreased (p < 0.01) compared with CMS athletes. However, the abovementioned values were similar to those of the control group. Conclusion. The functional status of elite swimmers at the end of the preparatory stage is characterized by moderate hemoconcentration, decreased MCV values, decreased inflammatory activity and increased sympathetic tone in heart rate regulation.

Complex assessment of athletes’ operative status and its correction during competitions, based on the body impedance analysis

Background and Study Aim. The aim of this research was assessment and correction of highly skilled swimmers’ operative status during competitions. Material and Methods. The authors carried out complex assessment of 46 high-skilled swimmers during competition period. The body impedance analysis and functional status express diagnosis were conducted before and after competitions. Results. The components limiting the operational state of swimmers were determined: “component composition of the body” (44.83% of the total load), “functional” (19.97%). Correlation relationships were established between the main indicators that determine the level of the operational state of athletes. The multiple regression equation was calculated, which made it possible to determine the influence of individual significant parameters on the level of the operational state of athletes and the confidence interval. A group of athletes with operational status indicators below the confidence interval received sport supplementation. Conclusion. The main characteristics of the athletes’ operative status are cellular biomarker phase, fat free mass, extracellular water, intracellular water, strength index. These characteristics should be used in assessment of both operative status and complex functional diagnosis of highly-skilled swimmers during competitions.

Skilled swimmers maintain performance stability under changing attentional focus constraints.

Focusing attention externally, rather than internally, has generally proved advantageous as it avoids interfering with self-organzing processes. However, some research has suggested that this may not necessarily be the case with highly skilled individuals who by definition possess a greater capacity to either adapt or maintain stability under varied task constraints. This study aimed to address this gap by comparing the performance of skilled athletes under internal and external attentional focus conditions using the swimming dive start as a task vehicle. Using a counterbalanced repeated measures design, skilled swimmers performed dive starts in conditions of differing attentional focus - internal and external attentional focus. Kinetic and kinematic variables were collected and statistical analyses conducted to compare differences between conditions. The results revealed no differences in outcome performance (relative peak power, horizontal velocity, and time to 5m) between internal and external focus conditions. However, remaining kinematic and kinetic measures revealed that all movement events occurred earlier in the movement sequence, suggesting superior self-organization of movement in the external focus condition. An external focus may be beneficial for the organization of movement control in skilled swimmers, but may not have an immediate impact upon the outcome of the task.

PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS AGAINST HYPOXIA IN DIVING SIMULATION IN SWIMMERS

Aim. The article deals with studying the systemic protective mechanisms of the brain against hypoxia during water immersion in highly skilled swimmers. Material and methods. 25 males aged 18–20 years were examined: 9 masters of sports, one master of sports of international class and 15 people not involved in sports. The study of cerebral blood flow was carried out by rheoencephalography (REG). REG was recorded at rest, when the face was immersed in water and during recovery. Examination was carried out 2 hours after the morning training session. In addition to cerebral blood flow, ECG and blood pressure were recorded at rest, during water immersion and recovery. Statistical data processing was performed using nonparametric Mann–Whitney and Wilcoxon criteria. Results. It was revealed that athletes at rest demonstrated more pronounced asymmetry of blood circulation and higher blood flow in the right hemisphere than people not involved in sports. However, during water immersion, the asymmetry disappears, blood flow improves, especially in the left hemisphere in the carotid artery territory as a result of a decrease in the tone of small vessels. In people not involved in sports, protective mechanisms are less pronounced. Conclusion. Vast experience in sports activities related to exercises performed in water and to training hypoxic exercises contributed to effective protective mechanisms against hypoxia based on the diving reflex.

Variability of upper body kinematics in a highly constrained task – sprint swimming

Before examining the effect of changing constraints on skill adaptation, it is useful to know the tolerable variability of a movement pattern for optimal performance. Tolerable variability may vary throughout the period of task performance as some parts of the movement pattern may be more important than others. The purpose of this study was to quantify the inter-trial variability of performance variables, and hand path as the task-relevant parameter, of skilled front crawl swimmers during 25 m sprints. It was hypothesised that the wrist paths would have smaller inter-trial variability during the below water phase than during the above water phase. Twelve skilled swimmers performed four 25 m front crawl sprints which were recorded by six phased locked video cameras for three-dimensional analysis. Standard deviations and time series repeatability (R 2) of the right and left wrist displacement were determined. On average, swimmers varied their sprint speed between trials by <1.5%. The spatio-temporal patterns of wrist paths varied by <3 cm in all directions (horizontal, vertical & lateral). There was no significant difference in inter-trial variability between above and below water phases. Swimmers increased wrist path consistency at the critical events of water entry in the horizontal and lateral directions and at exit for the horizontal direction. This study established levels of variability in spatio-temporal movement patterns of the paths of the wrist in sprint swimming and provided evidence that swimmers minimise variability for key events, in this case, the position of the wrists at water entry and exit.

Особливості техніко-тактичних дій висококваліфікованих спортсменів при пропливанні дистанції 100 метрів способом кроль на грудях

Olga Pilipko Purpose : to determine the features of technical and tactical actions of highly skilled athletes when swimming a distance of 100 meters by front crawl. Material & Methods : analysis and generalization of literary sources, video filming, timekeeping, methods of mathematical statistics. The contingent of subjects consisted of athletes who specialized in a distance of 100 meters in the way of swimming the front crawl and had the level of sports qualification master of sports of Ukraine, master of sports of international grade. Results : dynamics of indicators of technical and tactical skill among highly skilled athletes during their overcoming the 100 meter distance by front crawl has been investigated; characterized by the variability of technical and tactical actions of highly skilled athletes in different parts of the competition distance of 100 meters; determined the degree of influence of speed, pace and step of the cycle of rowing movements on the result of swimming a distance of 100 meters using the front crawl. Conclusion: overcoming the distance of 100 meters by the front crawl has its own specifics, which is reflected in changes in the indicators of technical and tactical masterhood; model characteristics of the most influential parameters of technical and tactical actions of highly skilled swimmers can serve as a guideline for improving the training process of athletes depending on their distance specialization.

Поиск показателей, определяющих эффективность преодоления ациклических участков на дистанциях 50, 100 и 200 метров в плавании вольным стилем

Purpose: to establish the most significant indicators affecting the athletic performance of highly skilled swimmers during the overcoming of acyclic sections at 50, 100 and 200 meters in freestyle swimming. Material & Methods: theoretical analysis and synthesis of scientific and methodical literature, pedagogical observation, video filming, timekeeping, methods of mathematical statistics. The surveyed group (n=24) consisted of highly qualified swimmers (MS, MSIG, HMS), take on at a distance of 50, 100 and 200 meters freestyle. Results: the peculiarities of overcoming starting and turning sections at distances of 50, 100 and 200 meters of freestyle were studied. The level of significance of the underwater phase after performing starts and turns relative to the 15 m mark is established. The degree of correlation relationship between time, speed and distance for the underwater phase for the speed of passage of various segments of distance is revealed . Conclusion: improvement of starting and turning techniques, due to the increase in speed and distance of the underwater phase, is one of the reserves for the further growth of the skill of swimmers who specialize in freestyle.

Drowning Management.

Highly skilled swimmers and aquatically adaptable service members such as U.S. Navy Divers, Sea, Air and Land (SEAL) Teams, and Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) technicians, die every year from drowning. Drowning is the cause of over 500,000 deaths annually across the globe. This Clinical Practice Guideline (CPG) provides an overview of drowning and associated conditions based on the best available current medical evidence. Unlike basic life support and advanced cardiac life support protocols, rescue breathing should be initiated prior to chest compressions to re-expand water-filled alveoli. These guidelines should be used as a standardized framework to guide first responders, prehospital emergency medical service personnel, and medical department personnel in evaluating, diagnosing, and managing common in water pathologies.

Does water temperature influence the performance of key survival skills?

Aquatic survival skills may be compromised in cold water thereby increasing the likelihood of drowning. This study compared physiological, psychological, and behavioral responses of humans treading water and swimming in cold and temperate water. Thirty-eight participants were classified as inexperienced (n=9), recreational (n=15), or skilled (n=10) swimmers. They performed 3 tasks: treading water (120seconds), swim at "comfortable" pace, and swim at "fast" pace in 2 water conditions (28°C vs 10°C). Heart rate, oxygen uptake, psychometric variables, spatio-temporal (swim speed, stroke rate, and stroke length), and coordination type were examined as a function of expertise. Tasks performed in cold water-generated higher cardiorespiratory responses (HR=145±16 vs 127±21bpm) and were perceived about 2 points more strenuous on the Borg scale on average (RPE=14.9±2.8 vs 13.0±2.0). The voluntary durations of both treading water (60±32 vs 91±33seconds) and swimming at a comfortable pace (66±22 vs 103±34seconds) were significantly reduced in cold water. However, no systematic changes in movement pattern type could be determined in either the treading water task or the swimming tasks. Water temperature influences the physical demands of these aquatic skills but not necessarily the behavior. Training treading water and swimming skills in temperate water seems to transfer to cold water, but we recommend training these skills in a range of water conditions to help adapt to the initial "cold-shock" response.

Peculiarities of using «drawing in» microcycles in preparation of highly skilled swimmers

The possibility of variability factor usage in alteration of «drawing in» microcycles in skilled swimmer preparation has been shown. The impact of training microcycles with different dynamics of load distribution has been analyzed. Optimal variants of drawing in microcycle usage in mezocycles have been determined.

Inter-individual variability and pattern recognition of surface electromyography in front crawl swimming

Variability of electromyographic (EMG) recordings is a complex phenomenon rarely examined in swimming. Our purposes were to investigate inter-individual variability in muscle activation patterns during front crawl swimming and assess if there were clusters of sub patterns present. Bilateral muscle activity of rectus abdominis (RA) and deltoideus medialis (DM) was recorded using wireless surface EMG in 15 adult male competitive swimmers. The amplitude of the median EMG trial of six upper arm movement cycles was used for the inter-individual variability assessment, quantified with the coefficient of variation, coefficient of quartile variation, the variance ratio and mean deviation. Key features were selected based on qualitative and quantitative classification strategies to enter in a k-means cluster analysis to examine the presence of strong sub patterns. Such strong sub patterns were found when clustering in two, three and four clusters. Inter-individual variability in a group of highly skilled swimmers was higher compared to other cyclic movements which is in contrast to what has been reported in the previous 50years of EMG research in swimming. This leads to the conclusion that coaches should be careful in using overall reference EMG information to enhance the individual swimming technique of their athletes.

A quantitative evaluation of the high elbow technique in front crawl

ABSTRACTMany coaches often instruct swimmers to keep the elbow in a high position (high elbow position) during early phase of the underwater stroke motion (pull phase) in front crawl, however, the high elbow position has never been quantitatively evaluated. The aims of this study were (1) to quantitatively evaluate the “high elbow” position, (2) to clarify the relationship between the high elbow position and required upper limb configuration and (3) to examine the efficacy of high elbow position on the resultant swimming velocity. Sixteen highly skilled and 6 novice male swimmers performed 25 m front crawl with maximal effort and their 3-dimensional arm stroke motion was captured at 60 Hz. An attempt was made to develop a new index to evaluate the high elbow position (Ihe: high elbow index) using 3-dimensional coordinates of the shoulder, elbow and wrist joints. Ihe of skilled swimmers moderately correlated with the average shoulder internal rotation angle (r = −0.652, P < 0.01) and swimming velocity (r = −0.683, P < 0.01) during the pull phase. These results indicate that Ihe is a useful index for evaluating high elbow arm stroke technique during the pull phase in front crawl.

Front-crawl stroke descriptors variability assessment for skill characterisation

ABSTRACTThe goal of this article is to characterise front-crawl swimming skill based on variability pattern of technique descriptors. Nine national level and nine recreational swimmers performed three 300 m trials in a 50 m outdoor pool, at 70%, 80% and 90% of their front-crawl 400 m personal best time. Using wearable inertial measurement units (IMUs) and validated algorithms we assessed the variability of technique descriptors at each arm cycle (139 ± 17 per trial). We calculated the duration of pull, push and non-propulsive phases, index of coordination (IdC), stroke length, stroke rate and intra-cyclic velocity variation. To track intra-trial technique variability, we calculated the Cauchy index to quantify the stability of multidimensional technique descriptors in space–time. Skilled swimmers, having access to divers motor solutions, achieved significantly higher velocities at similar intensities and similar IdC (P < 0.01) with more stable motor pattern (smaller Cauchy index). Besides, the similarity of intra-cyclic velocity variation at different intensities denotes that skilled swimmers used a wider dynamic range of velocity. We also introduced cycle velocity variation as a new metric of propulsive pattern repeatability and showed cycle velocity variation changes is correlated to the Cauchy index (rx,y = 0.72, P < 0.01). These findings indicate that IdC can be used as a predictor of performance only when swimmers of homogeneous expertise level are studied and suggest the scrutiny of both intra-cyclic velocity variation and cycle velocity variation as a requisite to study the motor adaptations of the swimmer in facing new constraints.

Показники грудної реографії у спортсменів-плавців в стані спокою та після виконання фізичних навантажень у різних положеннях тіла

Purpose: Study of chest rheography for skilled swimmers when the dosage of physical activity in different body positions. Materials and Methods: the study involved 20 qualified swimmers for middle and long distance. Results: studies changes rheographic indicators from qualified swimmers in response to exercise in different positions of the body showed a clear dependence of the structure and functional hemodynamic changes the position of the body in which the exercise is carried out. Conclusions: found that when evaluating the success of readiness of swimmers and planning training loads must be based on indicators of physical performance obtained during exercise in a horizontal position of the body.

Intracyclic velocity variation and arm coordination for different skilled swimmers in the front crawl.

The aim of this study was to examine whether the intracyclic velocity variation (IVV) was lower in elite swimmers than in beginner swimmers at various velocities, and whether differences may be related to arm coordination. Seven elite and nine beginner male swimmers swam front crawl at four different swimming velocities (maximal velocity, 75%, 85%, and 95% of maximal swimming velocity). The index of arm coordination (IDC) was calculated as the lag time between the propulsive phases of each arm. IVV was determined from the coefficient of variation of horizontal velocity within one stroke cycle. IVV for elite swimmers was significantly lower (26%) than that for beginner swimmers at all swimming velocities (p<0.01, 7.28 1.25% vs. 9.80 1.70%, respectively). In contrast, the IDC was similar between elite and beginner swimmers. These data suggest that IVV is a strong predictor of the skill level for front crawl, and that elite swimmers have techniques to decrease IVV. However, the IDC does not contribute to IVV differences between elite and beginner swimmers.

Body movement distribution with respect to swimmer’s glide position in human underwater undulatory swimming

Human swimmers use undulatory motions similar to fish locomotion to attain high speeds. The human body is a non-smooth multi-body linkage system with restricted flexibility and is not primarily adapted to motion in the water. Due to anatomical limitations, the human swimmer is forced to deviate from the symmetric fish-like motion and to adjust his motion to his limited abilities. The goal of this paper is to investigates the movement of ten swimmers during human underwater undulatory in a still water pool and to find out to what extent the human swimmer approaches an ideal undulatory wave which is symmetric with respect to the extended gliding position. Therefore, it is necessary to (i) to ascertain the magnitude of the normalized dorsal, ventral and total amplitudes of the undulatory movements, (ii) to examine the distribution and symmetry/asymmetry of the dorsal, ventral and total amplitudes along the length of the swimming body, and (iii) to compare the differences in amplitude distribution and other indicators between different skill levels. The amplitude distribution of the dorsal and ventral deflection along the body (related to the swimmer’s stretched position) is highly asymmetric. Skilled swimmers swim with a more linear body wave and use a smaller range of envelop than less skilled swimmers. The durations of the up and down kicks show only minor differences. The down kick is slightly faster than the up kick. Although the down kick is more powerful than the up kick, the hip marker shows almost the same average swimming speed in both half-cycles.

Analysis of the leading physical qualities influencing on the sports result of the highly skilled swimmers with musculoskeletal diseases

Аннотация В статье проведен анализ ведущих физических качеств, влияющих на спортивный результат высококвалифицированных пловцов с поражением опорно-двигательного аппарата. Выявлены следующие физические качества, в наибольшей степени обуславливающие достижение высоких результатов высококвалифицированных пловцов с поражением опорно-двигательного аппарата: скоростные, координационные, силовые способности, выносливость. Ключевые слова: ведущие физические качества; пловцов с поражением опорнодвигательного аппарата, физическая подготовка.

Features of application of the methods of regulation of the situational uneasiness in training process of highly skilled swimmers with musculoskeletal diseases

Аннотация Статья посвящена изучению особенностей подготовки высококвалифицированных пловцов с поражением опорно-двигательного аппарата и возможности использования методов регуляции ситуативной тревожности в процессе подготовки спортсменов. В процессе исследования у спортсменов были изучены такие показатели как ситуативная тревожность, сила и подвижность нервной системы, мотивационная направленность личности, внимание, реакция, волевая саморегуляция. На основе полученных данных была разработана и применена методика регуляции ситуативной тревожности. Ключевые слова: плавание, высококвалифицированные спортсмены с поражением опорно-двигательного аппарата, ситуативная тревожность.

Swimming into memory: the Los Angeles Olympics (1932) as Japanese lieu de mémoire

This paper will analyse the swimming events of the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics in the framework of collective memory. Olympic Games are memorable moments in the history of a nation. As moments they are a unit of time, but they are equally part of an Olympic as well as a national narrative sequence: Each Olympic Games continues the established rituals and symbolism of the Olympic Movement and each athletic event is firmly based in the history of prior athletic events. Performative practices are, in this sense, also commemorative practices that function as cues for collective memories. The memory of the 1932 swimming competitions thrives on the notion that Japan once has been a nation of extraordinary skilled and successful swimmers. I will show that the significance of the 1932 swimming competitions as lieu de mémoire is not based on the invention of a tradition, but rather lies in them being a frame of reference to verify the invented past as present.

Measures of Reliability in the Kinematics of Maximal Undulatory Underwater Swimming

The purposes of this article were to establish the reliability of the kinematics of maximal undulatory underwater swimming (UUS) in skilled swimmers, to determine any requirement for familiarization trials, to establish the within-subject (WS) variability of the kinematics, and to calculate the number of cycles required to accurately represent UUS performance. Fifteen male swimmers performed 20 maximal UUS trials (two cycles per trial) during four sessions. The magnitude of any systematic bias present within the kinematic variables was calculated between session, trial, and cycle. Random error calculations were calculated to determine the WS variation. An iterative intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) process was used to determine the number of cycles required to achieve a stable representation of each kinematic variable. Significant differences were found between session 1 and all other sessions for several variables, indicating the requirement for a familiarization session. Results indicated a wide range of WS variation (coefficient of variation [CV] = 1.21%-12.42%). Reductions in WS variation were observed for all variables when the number of cycles of data used to calculate WS variation was increased. Using six cycles of data, including additional cycles of data, provided diminishing returns regarding the reduction of WS variation. The ICC analysis indicated that an average of nine cycles (mean ± SD = 9.47 ± 5.63) was required to achieve the maximum ICC values attained, and an average of four cycles (mean ± SD = 3.57 ± 2.09) was required to achieve an ICC of 0.95. After determining the systematic bias and establishing the requirement for a familiarization session, six cycles of data were found to be sufficient to provide high levels of reliability (CV(TE) = 0.86-8.92; ICC = 0.811-0.996) for each of the UUS kinematic variables.