Ski Patrol Research Articles

An epidemiologic analysis of winter sport accidents on ski slopes comparing two seasons

The aim of this investigation was to provide a detailed analysis of accidents on ski slopes of Styrian resorts comparing two winter seasons. Accident data requiring the presence of the ski patrol of the seasons 2007/08 (10 skiing resorts with 1029 injuries) and 2014/15 (8 resorts with 1844 injuries) were recorded. Accidents were normalized to 1000 skier days and 10000 lift transports. Patients were followed to hospitals to obtain information about injured body region, final diagnosis and type of treatment. A slight increase of injuries from 0.5 to 0.7 per 1000 skier-days was found (P=0.046). Overall, the knee was most commonly affected followed by shoulder, lower leg, head and forearm. While the shoulder was most often affected in men the knee was most commonly affected in women. Patients <15 years had a higher prevalence of forearm injuries. Comparing the two seasons the use of helmets and spine protectors increased, associated with decreased injuries of these body regions. The hospitalization rate was 26% in both seasons; patients <15 years required less inpatient treatment than older ones. Different injury patterns between gender and age-groups have to be taken into account for future preventive measures. The increased acceptance of safety equipment was associated with reduced injury rates of the respective body regions. Results of the present study can facilitate to develop future injury prevention strategies in order to further decrease the number of casualties on ski slopes.

Hourly mass and snow energy balance measurements from Mammoth Mountain, CA USA, 2011–2017

Abstract. The mass and energy balance of the snowpack govern its evolution. Direct measurement of these fluxes is essential for modeling the snowpack, yet there are few sites where all the relevant measurements are taken. Mammoth Mountain, CA USA, is home to the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory and University of California – Santa Barbara Energy Site (CUES), one of five energy balance monitoring sites in the western US. There is a ski patrol study site on Mammoth Mountain, called the Sesame Street Snow Study Plot, with automated snow and meteorological instruments where new snow is hand-weighed to measure its water content. There is also a site at Mammoth Pass with automated precipitation instruments. For this dataset, we present a clean and continuous hourly record of selected measurements from the three sites covering the 2011–2017 water years. Then, we model the snow mass balance at CUES and compare model runs to snow pillow measurements. The 2011–2017 period was marked by exceptional variability in precipitation, even for an area that has high year-to-year variability. The driest year on record, and one of the wettest years, occurred during this time period, making it ideal for studying climatic extremes. This dataset complements a previously published dataset from CUES containing a smaller subset of daily measurements. In addition to the hand-weighed SWE, novel measurements include hourly broadband snow albedo corrected for terrain and other measurement biases. This dataset is available with a digital object identifier: https://doi.org/10.21424/R4159Q.

Ski and snowboard school programs: Injury surveillance and risk factors for grade‐specific injury

The objective of our study was to evaluate incidence rates and profile of school program ski and snowboard-related injuries by school grade group using a historical cohort design. Injuries were identified via Accident Report Forms completed by ski patrollers. Severe injury was defined as those with ambulance evacuation or recommending patient transport to hospital. Poisson regression analysis was used to examine the school grade group-specific injury rates adjusting for risk factors (sex, activity, ability, and socioeconomic status) and accounting for the effect of clustering by school. Forty of 107 (37%) injuries reported were severe. Adolescents (grades 7-12) had higher crude injury rates (91 of 10000 student-days) than children (grades 1-3: 25 of 10000 student-days; grades 4-6: 65 of 10000 student-days). Those in grades 1-3 had no severe injuries. Although the rate of injury was lower in grades 1-3, there were no statistically significant grade group differences in adjusted analyses. Snowboarders had a higher rate of injury compared with skiers, while higher ability level was protective. Participants in grades 1-3 had the lowest crude and adjusted injury rates. Students in grades 7-12 had the highest rate of overall and severe injuries. These results will inform evidence-based guidelines for school ski/snowboard program participation by school-aged children.

Physiological monitoring during multi-day Norwegian ski patrols in the arctic

Physiological monitoring during multi-day Norwegian ski patrols in the arctic

Cervical Spine Alignment in Helmeted Skiers and Snowboarders With Suspected Head and Neck Injuries: Comparison of Lateral C-spine Radiographs Before and After Helmet Removal and Implications for Ski Patrol Transport

Current protocols for spine immobilization of the injured skier/snowboarder have not been scientifically validated. Observing changes in spine alignment during common rescue scenarios will help strengthen recommendations for rescue guidelines. Twenty-eight healthy volunteers (18 men, 10 women) age 47±17 (range 20-73) (mean ±SD with range) underwent a mock rescue in which candidate patrollers completing an Outdoor Emergency Care course performed spine immobilization and back boarding in 3 scenarios: 1) Ski helmet on, no c-collar; 2) helmet on, with c-collar; and 3) helmet removed, with c-collar. After each scenario, a lateral radiograph was taken of the cervical spine to observe for changes in alignment. Compared with the control group (helmet on, no collar), we observed 9 degrees of increased overall (occiput-C7) cervical extension in the helmet on, with collar group (P < .001), and 17 degrees in the helmet off, with collar group (P < .001). There was increased extension at the occiput-C2 intersegment in the helmet on, with collar group (9 degrees, P < .001) and at both the occiput-C2 (9 degrees, P < .001) and C2-C7 (8 degrees, P < .001) intersegments in the helmet off, with collar group. Ski helmet removal and c-collar application each leads to increased extension of the cervical spine. In the absence of other clinical factors, our recommendation is that helmets should be left in place and c-collars not routinely applied during ski patrol rescue.

Twenty-Seven Years of Manual Fresh Snowfall Density Measurements on Whistler Mountain, British Columbia

ABSTRACTSnow density is important information for a wide range of activities including avalanche control, marketing, building-code development, weather forecasting, and water supply forecasting. Extended recent high-quality datasets from the mountainous regions of the Pacific Northwest coastal area are rare. This paper presents a study of an unusually long and continuous (January 1990 to April 2016) manually collected dataset of fresh snowfall measurements for Whistler Mountain, British Columbia, Canada. The dataset consists of snowboard core measurements that were collected by Whistler–Blackcomb ski patrol staff twice daily for avalanche control and resort-marketing purposes. These records were collated, transcribed, quality controlled, and made computer accessible in this study. A discussion of the characteristics of the data collection site and an assessment of data reliability are presented. Two examples of the many purposes to which this high-quality dataset might be put were studied. Climatic teleconnections to winter (December–February) mean snow density were examined, which revealed a positive relationship to the quadratic form of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation pattern (i.e., PDO2). In addition, an analysis of daily snow density relationships to air mass types was performed, which suggested that higher (lower) densities are associated with maritime inflow (arctic outflow) conditions. Both of these relationships appear to be mediated by the positive correlation between snow density and air temperature.Based on the full dataset (N = 1275 individual snow density measurements) for all months with measured snowfall, annual snowfall season (November to May) mean snow densities ranged from 77 kg m−3 to 109 kg m−3 with an overall mean of 91 kg m−3, giving an overall snow-depth to water-depth ratio of 11:1.

SKI AND SNOWBOARD SCHOOL PROGRAMS: INCIDENCE OF GRADE-SPECIFIC INJURY

BackgroundParticipating in school sanctioned skiing and snowboarding programs is a great way to encourage physical activity in youth. However, there is little evidence on the rates of ski and snowboard...

MAN-MADE JUMPS IN TERRAIN-PARKS AND THE RISK OF SEVERE SKI-PATROL REPORTED INJURIES IN ALPINE SKIERS AND SNOWBOARDERS

BackgroundTwo ski areas in Québec, Canada, removed man-made jumps from their terrain parks (TPs) from seasons 2007–08 to 2009–10. Jumps were reintroduced starting in season 2010–11.ObjectiveTo determine if man-made jumps...

A New Ski Injury Registration System Architecture Using Mobile Applications to Enhance Skiing Safety

Mobile apps play an increasingly important role in healthcare institutions by enhancing the quality of healthcare services. Their role in sport injury prevention is also instrumental. In this article, we propose a system architecture for ski injury registration using mobile apps. Our work follows the idea of integrating and using mHealth apps to manage skiing injuries and to provide higher healthcare service quality and faster availability of data. With this work, we aim to greatly simplify the information workflow between the ski patrollers and the medical centers. Having the right information in the right place and on the right time for the injured person, the ski patroller then delivers to the medical centers that information in a format that is easy to analyze by the medical personnel and be prepared for possible interventions. To develop the mobile interfaces for the ski patrollers, nurses and doctors, we employ user-centered design. The overall system features and implementation are also explained and described in this paper. For evaluation purposes of our proposed system architecture, we have conducted a pilot test of the ski patroller system in collaboration with the ski patrollers in the ski resort of Trysil in Norway. The test had two evaluation points and based on the results of the tests, we obtained implications for enhancing the design of mobile interfaces for the proposed architecture.

Utah Ski Patrol: Assessing Training Types and Resources

Skiers and snowboarders incur a variety of injuries and medical emergencies each year at ski resorts. The ski patrol is primarily responsible for initial triage, assessment and stabilization of these problems. The purpose of this study was to subjectively evaluate the type of training, resources, and equipment available to local ski patrols within Utah. Ski patrol directors at ski resorts in Utah were asked to complete a voluntary computerized survey. Of the 14 ski areas in Utah, ski patrol directors representing 8 resorts responded. The majority of patrols in Utah use Outdoor Emergency Care (OEC) as their primary education and certification source. Most programs also include site-specific training in addition to basic certification. All responding resorts had basic first responder equipment, including splinting devices, basic airway management, and hemorrhage control. Six of 8 responding resorts had affiliated clinics, and all had access to aeromedical transport. All of the responding ski patrol directors believed the current training level was adequate. Utah area ski patrollers frequently see trauma-related injuries and have the resources to assess and provide initial immobilization techniques. Many resorts have affiliated clinics with advanced providers, and all have access to aeromedical support to rapidly transfer patients to trauma centers. Medical directors may be of use for training as well as developing extended scope of practice protocols for advanced airway use or medication administration. Patrols may benefit from additional resort-specific training that addresses other frequently seen injuries or illnesses.

Listening to a personal music player is associated with fewer but more serious injuries among snowboarders in a terrain park: a case-control study

BackgroundSome snowboarders listen to music on a personal music player and the objective was to determine if listening to music was associated with injury in a terrain park.MethodsA case–control study...

RISK FACTORS FOR BODY REGION SPECIFIC INJURIES IN SKIERS AND SNOWBOARDERS

BackgroundLittle is known about risk factors (e.g., wrist guards, binding adjustment, equipment ownership) for body region specific skiing/snowboarding injuries.ObjectiveIdentify risk factors for body region specific injuries and severe injuries in...

THE EFFECT OF REMOVING MAN-MADE JUMPS FROM SNOW-PARKS ON THE RISK OF SEVERE SKI-PATROL REPORTED INJURIES SUSTAINED BY SKIERS AND SNOWBOARDERS

BackgroundEvidence indicates that snow-park (SP) injuries are more severe than injuries on regular slopes. This prompted two major ski areas in the province of Québec, Canada, to remove all man-made...

Employee Perception of a Mandated Helmet Policy at Vail Resorts

The purpose of this study was to measure support for a mandated helmet policy among resort employees along with the impact of such a policy on job satisfaction, and additionally, to measure the prevalence of barriers to helmet use among this population. In all, 728 Vail Resort employees were surveyed regarding their opinions on the helmet policy and on general helmet use. The majority of the 728 employees surveyed (66.5%; 95% CI: 63% to 70%) agreed with the helmet policy. Only 18% (95% CI: 16% to 21%) reported a negative effect on job satisfaction. Older employees (>25 years old) were more likely to disagree with the policy (odds ratio [OR] 3.1; 95% CI: 2.2 to 4.3) and report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR 4.8; 95% CI: 3.0 to 7.6). Skiers were much more likely than snowboarders to report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR 9.8; 95% CI: 5.2 to 18.1). Among resort employees, ski patrollers were more likely to disagree with the mandate (OR 9.8; 95% CI: 6.8 to 13.9) and report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR 13.2; 95% CI: 8.3 to 21.). Forty-three percent of participants (95% CI: 39% to 46%) agreed with the statement that wearing a helmet encourages reckless behavior whereas 51.0% (95% CI: 47% to 54%) believed that wearing a helmet limits sensory perception. A mandatory helmet use policy was supported by most resort employees. However, ski patrollers and older, more experienced employees were more likely to report a negative effect on job satisfaction. Barriers to helmet use continue to persist in the ski industry and represent a target for further educational efforts.

Comparing the characteristics of snowboarders injured in a terrain park who present to the ski patrol, the emergency department or both

Ski patrol report forms are a common data source in ski/snowboard research, but it is unclear if those who only present to the emergency department (ED) are systematically different from those who see the ski patrol. To determine the proportion and characteristics of injured snowboarders who bypass the ski patrol before presenting to the ED, three groups of injured snowboarders were compared: presented to the ED only, ski patrol only and ski patrol and ED. Data were collected from ski patrol Accident Report Forms (ARFs), ED medical records and telephone interviews. There were 333 injured snowboarders (ED only: 34, ski patrol only: 107, both: 192). Ability, time of day, snow conditions or drugs/alcohol predicted ED only presentation. Concussions (RRR: 4.66; 95% CI: 1.83, 11.90), sprains/strains (RRR: 4.22; 95% CI: 1.87, 9.49), head/neck (RRR: 2.90; 95% CI: 1.48, 5.78), trunk (RRR: 4.17; 95% CI: 1.92, 9.09) or lower extremity (RRR: 3.65; 95% CI: 1.32, 10.07) injuries were significantly more likely to present to ski patrol only versus ski patrol and ED. In conclusion, snowboarders who presented to the ED only had similar injuries as those who presented to both.

Characteristics of Injuries Sustained by Snowboarders in a Terrain Park

To determine injured body regions and injury type resulting from snowboarding on aerial and nonaerial terrain park features and the accuracy of ski patrol assessments compared with physician diagnoses. Case series study. An Alberta terrain park during the 2008-2009 and 2009-2010 seasons. There were 333 snowboarders injured on features (379 injuries). Aerial or nonaerial terrain park feature used at injury, injured body region, injury type, and additional risk factors were recorded from ski patrol Accident Report Forms, emergency department medical records, and telephone interviews. Odds of injury to body regions and injury types on aerial versus nonaerial features were calculated using multinomial logistic regression. Accuracy of ski patrol injury assessments was examined through sensitivity, specificity, and kappa (κ) statistics. The wrist was the most commonly injured body region (20%), and fracture was the most common injury type (36%). Compared with the upper extremity, the odds of head/neck [odds ratio (OR), 2.58; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.37-4.85] and trunk (OR, 3.65; 95% CI, 1.68-7.95) injuries were significantly greater on aerial features. There was no significant association between aerial versus nonaerial feature and injury type. The accuracy of ski patrol injury assessment was higher for injured body region (κ = 0.65; 95% CI, 0.54-0.75) than for injury type (κ = 0.29; 95% CI, 0.22-0.37). Snowboarders were significantly more likely to sustain head/neck or trunk injuries than upper extremity injuries on aerial features. Investigators should acknowledge potential misclassification when using ski patrol injury assessments.

REMOVING MAN-MADE JUMPS FROM SNOW-PARKS REDUCES THE RISK OF SEVERE SKI-PATROL REPORTED INJURIES SUSTAINED BY SKIERS AND SNOWBOARDERS

BackgroundEvidence indicates that snow-park (SP) injuries are more severe than injuries on regular slopes. This prompted two major ski areas in the province of Québec, Canada, to remove all man-made...

Employee Perception of a Mandated Helmet Policy at Vail Resorts

Helmet use among skiers and snowboarders is increasing but remains under 65%. In 2009, Vail Resorts implemented a mandatory helmet use policy for professional staff. This study sought to measure support for this policy among resort employees, as well as the impact of the policy on job satisfaction and planned helmet use. A convenience sample of 728 lift operators, ski patrollers, and instructors participated in a paper-based survey during work orientation or training programs. Survey questions included demographics, primary snow sport activity, helmet use, agreement with the helmet mandate and job satisfaction. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence limits (CI) were calculated to test for associations between age, gender and snow sport activity and 3 primary outcomes: agreement with the policy; job satisfaction; and planned helmet use. Of those surveyed: 82.2% were male; 52.3% were over age 25; 53.4% had worked 3+ seasons in the ski industry; and 56% were primarily skiers. Most employees (66.5%; 95% CI, 63%–70%) agreed with the helmet policy. Only 18% (95% CI, 16%–21%) reported a negative effect on job satisfaction. Older employees (>25 years) were more likely to disagree with the policy (OR, 3.1; 95% CI, 2.2–4.3) and report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR, 4.8; 95% CI, 3.0–7.6). Skiers were much more likely to report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR, 9.8; 95% CI, 5.2–18.1). Twenty percent (95% CI, 17.4%–23.3%) of employees reported they “always” wore a helmet while skiing or snowboarding recreationally prior to the mandate, while 32.4% (95% CI, 29.1%–35.9%) reported they intend to “always wear a helmet” while skiing recreationally this year. A mandatory resort-wide helmet use policy was supported by most resort employees and appears to increase planned recreational helmet use. Only a minority (primarily older, more experienced employees) reported a decline in job satisfaction.

Prehospital Medical Care and the National Ski Patrol: How Does Outdoor Emergency Care Compare to Traditional EMS Training?

The purpose of this study was to identify the differences between the educational curricula, skill sets, and funds of knowledge required for certification as an Outdoor Emergency Care Technician (OEC-T), Emergency Medical Technician (EMT), and Emergency Medical Responder (EMR). We directly and in detail compared topics and skills presented in the OEC-T curriculum with those presented in the EMT and EMR education and training curricula. The information and skills taught in the OEC-T curriculum are in general more extensive than those taught in EMR training but are not equivalent to EMT. The OEC-T program has more depth in environmental medical issues, such as altitude illness, hyperthermia and hypothermia. Completion of the EMR program is 112 hours shorter and constitutes 30% of the duration of the EMT program. Completion of the OEC-T program (for certification only and not including additional "on-hill" patroller training) is 80 hours shorter and is half the duration of the EMT program. The OEC-T curriculum includes a skill set and fund of knowledge that exceeds those of the EMR program, but does not include all the knowledge needed for an EMT program. The OEC-T program prepares out-of-hospital providers to care for patients in the wilderness, with special emphasis on snowsports pathology. The EMT program places a greater emphasis on medical disease and emergency medication administration. These differences should be considered when determining staffing requirements for agencies caring for patients with snowsports pathology.

Prehospital Medical Care and the National Ski Patrol

s s A s e s a ( m c i a i a j The National Ski Patrol (NSP) used the American Red Cross Advanced First Aid (AFA) course until 1987 (phased out in 1993) to train patrollers in emergency care. Skills illustrated in the AFA textbook include 21 bandages, 16 splints and slings, 14 emergency lifts and carries as well as several automobile extrication techniques, and 2 methods for lowering a patient on a backboard from a high building or cliff. AFA students praciced backboarding not only on land but also in a wimming pool, as well as emergency childbirth with bstetric manikins. Not all of these techniques reappear in Outdoor Emerency Care (OEC), which the NSP developed in 1987– 8, under the name Winter Emergency Care. Connoiseurs of bandaging, for example, will search in vain for ome of the more artistic designs from AFA, such as the -tailed bandage for nose or jaw. But OEC still includes ar more trauma care practice than emergency medical echnician (EMT) courses, and the disparity comes out uch more conspicuously in the way the courses are aught and the skills tested than in a comparison of the extbooks and curricula. This author was an AFA instrucor and instructor trainer for 20 years, has been an OEC nstructor for the NSP since the beginning of the proram, and is currently an OEC instructor trainer. OEC courses are scenario based, which means that fter students have learned some basic skills, about 50% f OEC class time is spent on role-playing accident cenarios. Much of the other 50% is spent learning and racticing new skills. OEC students are expected to aster the textbook (which includes study guides and elf-test questions in every chapter) on their own, so as to inimize the need for lectures in class. Staging scenarios ffectively requires many knowledgeable people to act as atients and monitors. This is feasible in OEC because he NSP is a volunteer organization, with many instrucors and experienced patrollers willing to help teach the lasses. Moreover, both the midterm and final practical xaminations for OEC are a series of scenarios.