Skewed Age Research Articles

Competitiveness of Japanese Electric and Electronics Factories

Abstract: This study employs data collected from a questionnaire survey of 97 business operations (factories) in Japan's electric and electronics industry to measure gemba-level and market-level competitiveness based on the framework of Fujimoto (2003). In addition, the employment situations within these sites were surveyed. The results of these surveys revealed that, as strengths of the electric industry gemba in Japan, 1) these gemba are superior in all metrics of competitiveness except for manufacturing cost, relative to overseas sites in the same companies; and 2) the high level of responsiveness to customers is the major source of market-level competitiveness. Nevertheless, the primary issue faced by these gemba is the skewed age composition of the full-time employees. There are few workers to carry forward necessary skills into future, and the labor costs of the veteran workers are increasing. Japan's manufacturing gemba must develop manufacturing competencies and improve design and development capabilities, in addition to nurturing younger personnel, to gain and sustain competitive advantage.Keywords: competitiveness, Japanese electric and electronics industry, factory management, strategic management, human resource managementIntroductionThis study employs data collected from a questionnaire survey of Japanese electric and electronics industry to measure the competitiveness of Japanese factories. Existing studies on automobile industry have examined the relations among performance, strategies, and manufacturing or RD Fujimoto, 2012; Holweg & Pil, 2004; MacDuffie, Sethuraman, & Fisher, 1996; Womack, Jones, & Roos, 1990). On the other hand, few studies have measured the competitiveness of the manufacturing gemba in Japanese electric and electronics industry. During the past few decades, Japanese electric and electronics companies have been struggling to compete against lower-priced rivals from South Korea and China. Certainly, some companies have lost international market share, but other companies have maintained competitiveness. Thus, this industry is an appropriate research object to investigate what factors are critical for manufacturing organizations to maintain competitiveness.This study used the framework of Fujimoto (2003) to measure the competitiveness of factories (business divisions). When measuring competitiveness, the types of metrics used are very important. Corporate competitiveness comprises the competitiveness of the various business divisions. Moreover, competitiveness is not merely a function of organizations, but it is impacted by, for example, environmental changes such as the fluctuating yen. Fujimoto (2003) proposed three layers of competitive performance: profit performance of a firm, market performance of a product, and productive performance of a manufacturing site (gemba). In addition, he considered that organisational capability supports productive performance. As this framework focuses on stable performance depending little on the macroeconomic changes, this study adopts it as a framework. In this framework, market performance directly influences profit performance (e.g., sales, profit, and stock prices) as providing compelling products and services to customers is a source of corporate earnings. Market performance is measured by metrics such as price, performance, timely delivery, and brands, and it results from productive performance. Productive performance is measured by the metrics of productivity, cost, production lead times, development lead times, and research productivity. Furthermore, productive performance results from organizational capabilities.In general, market performance is used as a metric of competitiveness, and productive performance is used only rarely. In many industries, competition is based on the metrics of market performance. However, Fujimoto (2003) indicated that Japanese automakers compete on the basis of productive performance and their manufacturing organizational capabilities. …

Population properties affect inbreeding avoidance in moose.

Mechanisms reducing inbreeding are thought to have evolved owing to fitness costs of breeding with close relatives. In small and isolated populations, or populations with skewed age- or sex distributions, mate choice becomes limited, and inbreeding avoidance mechanisms ineffective. We used a unique individual-based dataset on moose from a small island in Norway to assess whether inbreeding avoidance was related to population structure and size, expecting inbreeding avoidance to be greater in years with larger populations and even adult sex ratios. The probability that a potential mating event was realized was negatively related to the inbreeding coefficient of the potential offspring, with a stronger relationship in years with a higher proportion or number of males in the population. Thus, adult sex ratio and population size affect the degree of inbreeding avoidance. Consequently, conservation managers should aim for sex ratios that facilitate inbreeding avoidance, especially in small and isolated populations.

Characteristics of fishing operations, environment and life history contributing to small cetacean bycatch in the northeast Atlantic.

Fisheries bycatch is a key threat to cetacean species globally. Managing the impact requires an understanding of the conditions under which animals are caught and the sections of the population affected. We used observer data collected on an albacore tuna gillnet fishery in the northeast Atlantic, to assess operational and environmental factors contributing to bycatch of common and striped dolphins, using generalised linear models and model averaging. Life history demographics of the captured animals were also investigated. In both species, young males dominated the catch. The age ratio of common dolphins was significantly different from that estimated for the population in the region, based on life tables (G = 17.1, d.f. = 2, p = 0.002). Skewed age and sex ratios may reflect varying vulnerability to capture, through differences in behaviour or segregation in populations. Adult females constituted the second largest portion of the bycatch for both species, with potential consequences for population sustainability. Depth was the most important parameter influencing bycatch of both species and reflected what is known about common and striped dolphin habitat use in the region as the probability of catching common dolphins decreased, and striped dolphins increased, with increasing depth. Striped dolphin capture was similarly influenced by the extent to which operations were conducted in daylight, with the probability of capture increasing with increased operations in the pre-sunset and post-sunrise period, potentially driven by increased ability of observers to record animals during daylight operations, or by diurnal movements increasing contact with the fishery. Effort, based on net length and soak time, had little influence on the probability of capturing either species. Our results illustrate the importance of assessing the demographic of the animals captured during observer programmes and, perhaps more importantly, suggest that effort restrictions alone may not be sufficient to eradicate bycatch in areas where driftnets and small cetaceans co-occur.

Epidemiology of the Influenza A Virus H5N1 Subtype and Memory of Immunity to the H2N2 Subtype

In their recent paper, Peter Palese and Taia T. Wang proposed a hypothesis to explain how an older circulating subtype of influenza A virus is replaced with a novel subtype (1). They and others also published experimental evidence supporting their hypothesis on the extinction of seasonal H1N1 viruses by the 2009 pandemic H1N1 viruses (2). Although they discussed only the disappearance of seasonal H1N1 and H2N2 subtypes, we think that the same mechanism may be working against the currently circulating H5N1 subtype. The World Health Organization had reported a skewed age distribution of confirmed H5N1 cases in 2006 (3), and Matthew …

Elevated mortality among birds in Chernobyl as judged from skewed age and sex ratios.

BackgroundRadiation has negative effects on survival of animals including humans, although the generality of this claim is poorly documented under low-dose field conditions. Because females may suffer disproportionately from the effects of radiation on survival due to differences in sex roles during reproduction, radiation-induced mortality may result in male-skewed adult sex ratios.Methodology/Principal FindingWe estimated the effects of low-dose radiation on adult survival rates in birds by determining age ratios of adults captured in mist nets during the breeding season in relation to background radiation levels around Chernobyl and in nearby uncontaminated control areas. Age ratios were skewed towards yearlings, especially in the most contaminated areas, implying that adult survival rates were reduced in contaminated areas, and that populations in such areas could only be maintained through immigration from nearby uncontaminated areas. Differential mortality in females resulted in a strongly male-skewed sex ratio in the most contaminated areas. In addition, males sang disproportionately commonly in the most contaminated areas where the sex ratio was male skewed presumably because males had difficulty finding and acquiring mates when females were rare. The results were not caused by permanent emigration by females from the most contaminated areas because none of the recaptured birds had changed breeding site, and the proportion of individuals with morphological abnormalities did not differ significantly between the sexes for areas with normal and higher levels of contamination.Conclusions/SignificanceThese findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the adult survival rate of female birds is particularly susceptible to the effects of low-dose radiation, resulting in male skewed sex ratios at high levels of radiation. Such skewed age ratios towards yearlings in contaminated areas are consistent with the hypothesis that an area exceeding 30,000 km2 in Chernobyl’s surroundings constitutes an ecological trap that causes dramatic excess mortality.

Aging cremated infants: the problem of sacrifice at the Tophet of Carthage

The Greeks and Romans reproached the Phoenicians for the sacrifice of infants, and the excavation of cremated infants at ‘Tophets’ (named after the sacrificial site in Jerusalem mentioned in the Bible) seems to bear this out. However, the argument for infant sacrifice depends largely on a skewed age profile, and age is not easy to determine. The authors approach this problem with a battery of new techniques, showing that in the Tophet of Carthage the majority of the infants died between one and one and a half months. Sacrifice was thus very probable.

Selective harvesting of large mammals: how often does it result in directional selection?

1. Harvesting of large mammals is usually not random, and directional selection has been identified as the main cause of rapid evolution. However, selective harvesting in meat and recreational hunting cultures does not automatically imply directional selection for trait size. 2. Harvesting selectivity is more than a matter of hunter preference. Selection is influenced by management regulations, hunting methods, animal trait variance, behaviour and abundance. Most studies of hunter selection only report age- or sex-specific selection, or differences in trait size selection among hunting methods or groups of hunters, rather than trait size relative to the age-specific means required for directional selection. 3. Synthesis and applications. Managers aiming to avoid rapid evolution should not only consider directional selection and trophy hunting but also mitigate other important evolutionary forces such as harvesting intensity per se, and sexual selection processes that are affected by skewed sex ratios and age structures.

Idebenone as a novel, therapeutic approach for Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Results from a 12 month, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial

Early mortality in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is related to cardiac and respiratory complications. A phase IIa double-blind randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted to investigate the tolerability and efficacy of idebenone therapy in children with DMD. Twenty-one DMD patients (aged 8–16 years) were randomly assigned to daily treatment with 450 mg idebenone (Catena®) ( n = 13) or placebo ( n = 8) for 12 months. All subjects completed the study and idebenone was safe and well tolerated. Idebenone treatment resulted in a trend ( p = 0.067) to increase peak systolic radial strain in the left ventricular inferolateral wall, the region of the heart that is earliest and most severely affected in DMD. A significant respiratory treatment effect on peak expiratory flow was observed ( p = 0.039 for PEF and p = 0.042 for PEF percent predicted). Limitations of this study were the small sample size, and a skewed age distribution between treatment groups. Data from this study provided the basis for the planning of a confirmatory study.

Age-related sensitivity and pathological differences in infections by 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus

BackgroundThe highly pandemic 2009 influenza A H1N1 virus infection showed distinguished skewed age distribution with majority of infection and death in children and young adults. Although previous exposure to related antigen has been proposed as an explanation, the mechanism of age protection is still unknown.MethodsIn this study, murine model of different ages were inoculated intranasally with H1N1 (A/Beijing/501/09) virus and the susceptibility and pathological response to 2009 H1N1 infection were investigated.ResultsOur results showed that the younger mice had higher mortality rate when infected with the same dose of virus and the lethal dose increased with age. Immunohistochemical staining of H1N1 antigens in mice lung indicated infection was in the lower respiratory tract. Most bronchial and bronchiolar epithelial cells in 4-week mice were infected while only a minor percentage of those cells in 6-month and 1-year old mice did. The young mice developed much more severe lung lesions and had higher virus load in lung than the two older groups of mice while older mice formed more inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue in their lungs and more severe damage in spleen.ConclusionsThese results suggest that young individuals are more sensitive to H1N1 infection and have less protective immune responses than older adults. The age factor should be considered when studying the pathogenesis and transmission of influenza virus and formulating strategies on vaccination and treatment.

A revised life table and survivorship curve for Albertosaurus sarcophagus based on the Dry Island mass death assemblageThis article is one of a series of papers published in this Special Issue on the theme Albertosaurus.

In 1910 a crew from the American Museum of Natural History discovered a bone bed composed primarily of the large tyrannosaurid Albertosaurus sarcophagus in what is now Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park in Alberta, Canada. Study of the remains from the site allowed the first life table and survivorship curve for a non-avian dinosaur to be created. These have served as a model for subsequent studies of dinosaurian population biology. Since 2006, the discovery and preparation of hundreds of new elements from the bone bed stand to substantially increase the minimum number of individuals (MNI) represented. This would allow testing of previous conclusions regarding the population biology of these animals and refinement of our understanding of the patterns of survivorship. Here, four formerly unrecognized individuals from the Dry Island assemblage are revealed and a revised life table presented. As in the previous analysis, a left skewed age distribution and sigmoidal survivorship pattern were found. Annual mortality rates averaged 3.47% between ages two and 13 and then increased to a mean of 19.5% prior to extinction of the cohort after 28 years of age. Mean life expectancy for individuals surviving to two years of age was 15.19 years. Mid-life increase in attrition corresponds to entrance into the breeding population. The MNI is unlikely to substantially increase, and new individuals are unlikely to affect the pattern of survivorship inferred here. Nevertheless, future excavations stand to reveal more about the anatomical and pathological variance within the Dry Island Albertosaurus population.

INTENTIONS TO PARTICIPATE IN ADOLESCENT TRAINING PROGRAMS: EVIDENCE FROM UGANDA

Almost one-third of the population in developing countries is under age 15. Hence improving the effectiveness of policy interventions that target adolescents might be especially important. We analyze the intention to participate in training programs of adolescent girls in Uganda, a country with perhaps the most skewed age distribution anywhere in the world. The training program we focus on is BRAC's Adolescent Development Program, which emphasizes the provision of life skills, entrepreneurship training, and microfinance. We find that girls who are more likely to benefit from the program are more likely to intend to participate. The program attracts girls who are likely to place a high value on financial independence: single mothers and girls who are alienated from their families. The program attracts girls who are more likely to benefit from training: girls who believe they could be successful entrepreneurs but currently lack the quantitative skills to do so. Reassuringly, girls who are in school full-time are less likely to intend to participate. We also find that the program attracts girls from poorer villages but we find no evidence that poorer girls within each village are more likely to want to participate. Finally, girls from villages who have previously been exposed to NGO projects are less likely to intend to participate.

Intentions to Participate in Adolescent Training Programs: Evidence from Uganda

Almost one-third of the population in developing countries is under age 15. Hence improving the effectiveness of policy interventions that target adolescents might be especially important. We analyze the intention to participate in training programs of adolescent girls in Uganda, a country with perhaps the most skewed age distribution anywhere in the world. The training program we focus on is BRAC's Adolescent Development Program, which emphasizes the provision of life skills, entrepreneurship training, and microfinance. We find that girls who are more likely to benefit from the program are more likely to intend to participate. The program attracts girls who are likely to place a high value on financial independence: single mothers and girls who are alienated from their families. The program attracts girls who are more likely to benefit from training: girls who believe they could be successful entrepreneurs but currently lack the quantitative skills to do so. Reassuringly, girls who are in school full-time are less likely to intend to participate. We also find that the program attracts girls from poorer villages but we find no evidence that poorer girls within each village are more likely to want to participate. Finally, girls from villages who have previously been exposed to NGO projects are less likely to intend to participate.

Estimation of physician supply by specialty and the distribution impact of increasing female physicians in Japan

BackgroundJapan has experienced two large changes which affect the supply and distribution of physicians. They are increases in medical school enrollment capacity and in the proportion of female physicians. The purpose of this study is to estimate the future supply of physicians by specialty and to predict the associated impact of increased female physicians, as well as to discuss the possible policy implications.MethodsBased on data from the 2004 and 2006 National Survey of Physicians, Dentists and Pharmacists, we estimated the future supply of physicians by specialty, using multistate life tables. Based on possible scenarios of the future increase in female physicians, we also estimated the supply of physicians by specialty.ResultsEven if Japan's current medical school enrollment capacity is maintained in subsequent years, the number of physicians per 1000 population is expected to increase from 2.2 in 2006 to 3.2 in 2036, which is a 46% increase from the current level. The numbers of obstetrician/gynecologists (OB/GYNs) and surgeons are expected to temporarily decline from their current level, whereas the number of OB/GYNs per 1000 births will still increase because of the declining number of births. The number of surgeons per 1000 population, even with the decreasing population, will decline temporarily over the next few years. If the percentage of female physicians continues to increase, the overall number of physicians will not be significantly affected, but in specialties with current very low female physician participation rates, such as surgery, the total number of physicians is expected to decline significantly.ConclusionAt the current medical school enrollment capacity, the number of physicians per population is expected to continue to increase because of the skewed age distribution of physicians and the declining population in Japan. However, with changes in young physicians' choices of medical specialties and as the percentage of female physicians increases, patterns of physician supply will vary between specialties. Specialties less often chosen by young physicians and where males have dominated will face a decline in physician supply. These results highlight the necessity for developing a work environment that attracts female physicians to these types of specialties. This will also lead to improved gender equality in the workforce and more effective use of human resources.

Using multiple metrics to assess the effects of forest succession on population status: A comparative study of two terrestrial salamanders in the US Pacific Northwest

Investigations to determine stable or source-sink animal population dynamics are challenging and often infeasible for most species due to the time and expense of mark-recapture studies and the challenge of life histories attributes that result in low detectability and low recapture probabilities. Often, managers rely solely on occupancy or relative abundance patterns to assess a species’ sensitivity to environmental changes. Greater insight into population-level responses to environmental change can be gained by consideration of a combination of readily obtainable metrics, including occupancy, relative abundance, demographic structure and body condition. We examined how these metrics can improve our understanding of population-level responses to forest disturbance, using datasets for two exemplar species of terrestrial salamanders resident to the Pacific Northwestern USA. We compared population metrics for the Del Norte salamander (Plethodon elongatus) and the Siskiyou Mountains salamander (Plethodon stormi) across the seral continuum represented by four forest age classes: pre-canopy, young, mature, and old-growth. We compared these data with those collected from reference stands in mature (P. stormi) or old-growth (P. elongatus) forest containing robust populations. P. elongatus was twice as common as P. stormi. Both occupancy and salamander counts were lowest at pre-canopy sites for both species. Although there were numerous P. elongatus detections in young forests, higher proportions of these individuals were juveniles and sub-adults when compared to populations in late-seral forests. We found a negative relationship between the proportion of immature animals and total counts at a site, indicating that the high proportion of young animals in young forest stands is likely due to dispersal of young salamanders from nearby source populations and/or low survival of adult animals in young forests. We also found reduced body condition of P. stormi populations in young forests. Our results suggest that there are costs to populations occupying early seral forests, such as skewed age class structure and reduced body condition that are indicative of sink populations. Consideration of population-level metrics beyond occupancy and relative abundance can provide important insights when assessing a species’ sustainability in managed forest landscapes.

Herbal medicine for cancer patients: An evidence based review

Insomnia is a common disorder in both clinical and general populations. Treatment is complicated various methods of classification and confounding co-morbidity. Conventional pharmaceutical managements tends to focus on short term relief of symptoms rather than managing the underlying cause of insomnia. Moreover, conventional pharmaceuticals have unwanted side effects, tolerance and dependence. Herbal medicine provides safe, effective and reliable treatment strategies aimed at addressing both symptoms and aetiology of insomnia. Herbal treatments for insomnia tend to offer a cost effective alternative with no associated issues relating to tolerance and dependence. This article provides a summary of herbal treatment options in insomnia, and a brief analysis of supporting evidence. INTRODUCTION It is important to distinguish insomnia from other sleeping disorders. Indeed, a patient may themselves not know sufficient information about their sleep disorder and history to differentiate. Often it is information from parents or a bed partner that provides the clues to differentiate insomnia from, for example, hypersomnia and parasomnia. Moreover, one must differentiate insomnia symptoms from clinical insomnia (genuine dissatisfaction with sleep) highlighted perhaps by a recent study that indicated 36% of people reported insomnia but only 25% of those (9% overall) experienced genuine dissatisfaction with sleep (1). Insomnia relates to problem initiating or maintaining sleep (2,3) and tends to result in day time fatigue (3). Hypersomnia is excessive day time sleepiness with a tendency to fall asleep during the day and is generally associated with respiratory disorders (sleep apnea, narcolepsy) (3). Parasomnia are sleep aberrations like sleep walking, night tremors, nightmares and sleep paralysis (3). Other sleep disorders include restless leg syndrome and circadian rhythm disorder (3). Insomnia can be classified in terms of either its duration (acute or chronic) or its aetiology (primary or secondary) (4). Acute insomnia (also known as transient insomnia) generally results from a significant event in ones daily life (eg. trauma, long distance travel, change in sleep/awake pattern) and can be treated directly or preventative measures might be adopted (4). Chronic insomnia tends to be longer lasting with an association with medical aetiology and requires a more rigorous assessment to determine treatment options (4). Primary insomnia are those where there is no mental or physical cause requiring more direct treatment while secondary insomnia results as co-morbidity associated with other mental or physical illness requiring a more considered treatment approach (4). It must be noted, however, that any classification of insomnia can be confounded by the presence of a multitude of contributory factors (2). In general practice, the prevalence of clinical insomnia (causing day time dysfunction) range from 10% to 34% and is typically higher in older persons, women, those with less education, the unemployed and in those separated or divorced (1,5). Prevalence of insomnia is also higher in clinical populations than the general population (5) which reflects both secondary insomnia and the skewed age distribution in the clinical population. Ebert, Wafford and Deacon (2) report that 25% of adults experience insomnia at some point while 10% of the population consider insomnia to be a chronic problem. PATIENT HISTORY The goal of the patient history is to elicit sufficient information to classify the sleep disorder; to confirm indeed that the patient is suffering insomnia and not another sleep disorder. If insomnia is the correct sleep disorder, the information will also provide some scope to classify the type of insomnia; chronic versus acute, primary versus secondary, and an insight into the cause, although one recognises that Insomnia: An Overview Of Herbal Treatments 2 of 5 causal relationships are extraordinarily difficult to establish. Only after establishing this history can an intervention be considered; the correct treatment will depend on accurate classification and reatments should reflect the aetiology of insomnia and, thus, be individualised for each patient. HISTORY (,): Onset of insomnia Severity of insomnia Duration of insomnia Progression of insomnia Impact on awake activities Family history of sleep disorders Sleeping habits (sleep hygiene) and perhaps a ‘sleep diary'.

Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Age Distribution in Humans

To the Editor: A total of 229 confirmed human cases of avian influenza A (H5N1) were reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) from 10 countries of Africa, Asia, and Europe in the 30 months leading up to July 4, 2006 (1). WHO has highlighted the skewed age distribution of these confirmed cases toward children and young adults, with relatively few cases in older age categories (2). An explanation for this age bias is currently lacking, although a range of behavioral, biological, demographic, and data-related factors may account for the observed pattern (2,3).

Instream flows and the decline of riparian cottonwoods along the Yakima River, Washington, USA

AbstractUnder pre‐settlement conditions the Yakima River in Washington state, USA was characterized by multiple channels, complex aquifers and extensive riparian cottonwood forests. Subsequent implementation of headwater dams to supply irrigation water has altered river and floodplain processes critical to the cottonwoods and associated riparian vegetation. In this study, we analysed hydrology and floodplain forests and especially the dominant black cottonwoods (Populus trichocarpa) along sequential reaches of the Yakima River. Elevations were surveyed and vegetation inventoried along cross‐sectional belt transects, and cottonwood tree ring interpretations investigated historic associations between river hydrology and cottonwood establishment and growth. We analysed hydrographs relative to the apparent episodes of cottonwood recruitment and applied a quantitative model for seedling colonization that required: (1) floods, disturbance flows to produce barren nursery sites, and subsequent flows for seedling (2) establishment and (3) survival. In contrast to earlier conditions, flow patterns after the 1960s have generally been unfavourable for cottonwood recruitment although some cottonwood colonization has occurred in association with physical disturbance from gravel mining. With recent flow regimes, regulated flows along upper reaches maintain the river near bank‐full throughout the growing season, thus inundating suitable seedling recruitment sites. Downstream, irrigation withdrawals reduce the river stage, resulting in seedling establishment at low elevations that are lethally scoured by subsequent high flows. These regulated flow regimes have not hindered growth of established trees, but have reduced the recruitment of cottonwoods, and particularly disfavoured females, thus altering sex ratios and producing skewed cottonwood population age and gender structures. The cottonwood decline has also been associated with other changes in riparian plant community composition, including the encroachment of invasive weeds. Based on this ecohydrologic analysis we discuss flow adjustments that could rejuvenate cottonwood forests along the Yakima River. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Midland Smooth Softshell (Apalone mutica) and Spiny Softshell (Apalone spinifera) Turtles in the Middle Mississippi River: Habitat Associations, Population Structure, and Implications for Conservation

By using 6 years of Long Term Resource Monitoring Program (LTRMP) turtle by-catch data collected from the middle Mississippi River, we investigated smooth softshell (Apalone mutica) and spiny softshell (Apalone spinifera) turtle abundance collected from 5 physical habitats: main channel border, wing dikes, tributary, open side channel, and closed side channel. Females comprised 62% and males 38% of the total catch of smooth softshell turtles. For spiny softshell turtles, females comprised 67% and males 33% of the total catch. We observed skewed reproductive age structure and sex ratios among and within both species. Smooth and spiny softshell turtle captures were dominated by reproductive individuals (62% and 87%, respectively). Smooth softshell turtles were most abundant in open side channels and main channel borders, whereas spiny softshell turtles were most abundant in tributaries and closed side channels. Smooth softshell abundance was greatest in deep waters with faster water velocity, whereas spiny softshell abundance was greatest in waters with higher visibility (e.g., Secchi transparency) and slower water velocity.

Stand Tall and Speak Up: Where Will the Next Generation Come From?

One of the things an SPE President is supposed to do is encourage students to study petroleum engineering. With the age demographics in the industry and the current high oil prices, this might seem like a "no brainer." But, memories of the 1980's gave me pause. The problem is that the supply of students is not something you turn on and off quickly. Students pay a lot of attention to who is getting the good jobs, but a senior can't change his/her major on a whim. The information trickles down to younger students, so it takes a couple of years to see a response. The lag time in the response is clearly illustrated in Fig. 1, which compares the inflation-adjusted oil price with the number of bachelor-level petroleum engineering degrees granted in the U.S. The U.S. students who graduated after oil prices peaked in 1981 had a difficult time finding jobs. Many of them never received a job offer in the industry. Some students had their job offers rescinded. The image of the petroleum industry took a beating in the process. Even after layoffs began and only a few students got job offers, an unusually large number of students were graduating as petroleum engineers. Just as students can't easily change their majors to take advantage of a hot job market, they can't easily switch to avoid an industry that is downsizing. To change majors, a student may have to prolong his/her education. Many students cannot afford the extra time in college. Some people think that independent of oil price, companies will be hiring for many years to replace retirees. The answer is not that simple. If companies hired in response to retirements, the skewed age distribution never would have developed. While companies watch their age distributions and complain about them, they hire in response to activity, and activity follows oil price. Even in good times, companies are under relentless pressure to reduce operating expenses. People are a just-in-time commodity, to be acquired as needed. The advantage of a new employee with a brand-new bachelor's degree in petroleum engineering is that he/she can become functional much faster than someone with a different technical degree. However, to maintain their skills after graduation, everyone must be learning constantly about new technical developments. Facilitating this learning is SPE's major function. While graduates from another engineering or science discipline may take longer to get started, they can become excellent petroleum engineers. Many of the most distinguished technical professionals in our industry were trained in other disciplines. In the long run our industry will benefit from having people with a variety of technical backgrounds. People with diverse backgrounds approach problems in different ways, and working together may develop better solutions. Based on my assessment of past hiring patterns, I don't recommend large expansions of petroleum engineering degree programs. To supplement the current supply of petroleum engineering students, I prefer to encourage other students to study science and engineering and to consider careers in the petroleum industry. That way if the job market turns before they graduate, we do not have an oversupply of petroleum engineers.

The African savannah elephant population in Kidepo Valley National Park, Uganda: changes in size and structure from 1967 to 2000

AbstractThe age and sex structure of the elephant population in Kidepo Valley National Park were studied using recognition files. Moreover, population trends were reviewed using past studies. From 1967 to 2000, the elephant population varied between 200 and 500 individuals. Of the minimum number of 374 elephants found to use the Park, 352 were individually identified. Seventy‐nine per cent of these were recorded in 29 families ranging from three to 22 animals with a mean group size of ten. Young animals dominated the population (45% aged 0–9.9 years), while 11% were 10–14.9 years of age and only 18% over 25 years of age. Overall, males constituted 45% of the population, but only 32% of the individuals in the 10–14.9‐year age class were males. Individuals ≥15 years of age displayed a skewed sex ratio of 1 : 1.4 in favour of females. The extent of skew was greatest among mature animals (≥25 years of age), which had four times as many females as males. The skewed age structure in the year 2000 caused by poaching and drought, led to a significant difference between the age distribution in 1970 and 2000. Recent counts suggest that the Kidepo elephant population may be increasing.