Bird Skeletons Research Articles

Environmental signal in the evolutionary diversification of bird skeletons.

Characterizing how variation in the tempo and mode of evolution has structured the phenotypic diversity of extant species is a central goal of macroevolution1-3. However, studies are typically limited to a handful of traits4-6, providing incomplete information. We analyse morphological diversification in living birds, an ecologically diverse group7, documenting structural scales from 'pan-skeletal' proportions down to the localized three-dimensional shape changes of individual bones. We find substantial variation in evolutionary modes among avian subgroups and among skeletal parts, indicating widespread mosaicism and possible differences in the structure of the macroevolutionary landscape across Earth's main environments. Water-linked groups, especially Aequorlitornithes (waterbirds), have repeatedly explored a large portion of their total morphospace, emphasizing variation in body proportions and in the shape of bones close to the body core, which are functionally related to the mechanics of locomotion8. By contrast, landbirds (Inopinaves) evolved distinct, group-specific body forms early in the aftermath of the K-Pg and subsequently emphasized local shape variation, especially in the head and distal limb bones, which interact more directly with the environment. Passerines, which comprise more than half of all bird species, show a conservative evolutionary dynamic that resulted in low disparity across all skeletal parts. Evidence for early establishment of the morphospace of living birds is clear for some skeletal parts, including beaks and the combined skeletal morphology. However, we find little evidence for early partitioning of that morphospace, contrary to more specific predictions of 'niche-filling' models1,9. Nevertheless, early divergence among broad environmental types may have caused an early divergence of evolutionary modes, suggesting an important role for environmental divergence in structuring the radiation of crown-group birds.

Galliformes exhibit reduced cardiorespiratory morphology yet similar skeletal mass compared with other gamebirds

Flight is one of the most effective yet energetically demanding means of movement. Its energy costs are normally associated with interspecific variation in efficiency, size of organs, and physiological systems that reflect different flight capacities. Adaptive morphological variation may be constrained by physical demands that vary with body size, but work remains to place allometry associated with flight mode in an ecological and evolutionary context. We predicted that heart, lung, and skeletal masses, as well as tracheal diameter, should show a reciprocal positive correlation and have reduced size in species with poor flight capacities. We measured tracheal diameter together with lung, heart, and skeletal mass in 21 species of medium to large body sized game birds. We then compared 7 of these species categorized as short flyers belonging to the order Galliformes with 14 other species capable of sustained flapping flight. Our comparative analyses incorporating phylogeny revealed that once accounting for body mass, Galliformes had smaller heart mass compared to other species, as shown in few previous studies. Additionally, we detected reduced tracheal diameter and lung mass in Galliformes, suggesting the presence of morphological pleiotropy predicted under the concept of symmorphosis. These organs all showed different levels of reciprocal correlations due to their functional connection. Residual skeletal mass was independent of flight capacity and showed no relationship with heart mass, thus indicating that selection for reduced skeletal mass may have already maximized how light a bird skeleton can be, constraining mass-independent variation in this trait. Our results suggest that cardiorespiratory organs have evolved symmorphic variation in size that reflects costs and benefits associated with different flight capacities. However, our observed differences are confounded with phylogenetic history, so additional comparative studies are needed to rigorously test this hypothesis.

Unearthing avian evolution What can we learn from the skeletons of flightless birds?

Unearthing avian evolution What can we learn from the skeletons of flightless birds?

Retrospective Study of Fractures in both Appendicular and Axial Skeletons of Birds Belonging to the Families Falconidae and Cariamidae

This retrospective study aimed to identify and classify fractures in the appendicular and axial skeletons of birds from the Cariamidae and Falconidae families presented to a referral centre. Twelve of thirteen adult red-legged seriemas (Cariama cristata) had appendicular skeleton fractures and one an axial skeleton fracture. All appendicular skeleton fractures occurred in pelvic limbs, but one bird also had a thoracic limb fracture. Among the long-bone fractures, ten were of the tibiotarsus. Among these fractures, six were comminuted, two transverse and two spiral. One seriema had an ulnar spiral fracture, and two had exposed fractures of the tibiotarsus. The Falconidae included nine Carcara plancus, five Falco sparverius and two Falco femoralis. Appendicular skeleton fractures were detected in 14 Falconidae, axial skeleton fractures in one,and another bird had fractures in both skeletons. Three fractures occurred in pelvic limbs, and the other was thoracic limb fractures. Out of all the long-bone fractures, eight were found in the humerus, three of which were exposed, two comminuted, two spiral, and one oblique. Four ulna fractures were found; two of them were comminuted, one spiral and transverse. There were two comminuted radius fractures. Tibiotarsus fractures included two transversal and one comminuted fracture. In conclusion, in both families the highest prevalence of fractures was in the appendicular skeleton; however, the fractures in Cariamidae occurred mainly in the pelvic limbs, whereas the fractures in Faconidae were found more frequently in the thoracic limbs.

Control Aware of Limitations of Manipulators With Claw for Aerial Robots Imitating Bird's Skeleton

Winged animals such as birds, flying mammals or insects have lightweight limbs which allow them to perform different tasks. Although in robotics there are some examples of winged robots (called ornithopters), it has not been yet studied how to add them some manipulation-like capabilities, similarly to the anatomy of animals limbs. Adding those capabilities to ornithopters will outperform multirotor platforms giving the possibility to perch in unaccessible places, grasp objects and perform some kind of manipulation while being in proximity to humans. The special manipulator imitates the anatomy of the birds, having a kinematic chain with actuated joints except the first passive one that resembles the claw of a bird with a grasping force. This work analyzes in depth these ornithopter-like manipulators and proposes a nonlinear controller aware of the limitation in the grasping force of the claw, modeled as static friction. The solution is based on a methodology to control constrained-nonlinear systems via diffeomorphisms providing an explicit controller with low torques demand to meet aerial requirements. It is verified on a realistic simulator with 5DOF links-claw, low/upp-er leg, body, neck and beak-, and experimentally validated in a simpler 3DOF prototype.

The Extent of Metaplastic Hard Tissue Within the Appendicular Skeleton of the Nine‐Banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

The developmental and functional advantages of vertebrate metaplastic hard tissue is still relatively unclear. Metaplastic tissue forms from the direct transformation of one cell type to another. Specifically, mineralization of preformed dense connective tissue results in intratendinous metaplastic tissue, and has been described in a variety of taxa and elements including turtle shell, reptilian osteoderms, sturgeon scutes, dinosaur cranial and vertebral elements, ossified tendons, portions of bird skeletons, and tendinous entheses in mammalian bone. However, histological analysis of the extent of metaplastic hard tissues, both across Mammalia and within individual mammalian bones, is lacking. Here we serially sectioned both tibiae of a nine‐banded armadillo, Dasypus novemcinctus [Xenarthra: Cingulata], transversely and longitudinally to identify the existence and possible patterns of metaplastic hard tissue. All skeletal elements were processed using standard procedure for the preparation of undecalcified bone. We found evidence of metaplastic hard tissue in the tibial crest, as well as the medial side of the diaphysis and the proximal lateral side of the tibia. The metaplastic tissue in the tibial crest appears interstitially within a primary woven bone matrix. Along the lateral side, metaplastic tissue forms a thin patch in the mid‐cortex superficial to compact coarse cancellous bone. The presence of metaplastic hard tissue seems consistent with tendinous insertions through fibrous entheses along the length of the tibia and tibial crest. The entrapment of metaplastic tissue within the tibia is likely due to appositional bone growth at the enthesis. However, the presence of metaplastic hard tissue on the medial side of the mid‐diaphyseal and proximal portion of the tibia does not appear to be associated with any tendinous insertions. Previously, unassociated metaplastic tissue was found extensively in osteoderms, ankylosaur tail clubs, and dinosaur cranial ornamentation such as the parietal frill of Triceratops. Study of metaplastic hard tissue in modern bone, independent of tendinous insertions, can improve our understanding of its potential biomechanical advantages and thereby possibly provide clues to its use in ornamentation and within the appendicular skeleton. Metaplastic hard tissues have likely been misidentified and understudied in previous investigations of modern hard tissue microstructure. Additionally, because Xenarthra is proposed to be one of the four original clades of placental mammals, analysis of metaplastic tissue in the skeleton of D. novemcinctus could have implications for early mammalian bone development patterns.Support or Funding InformationPartial funding was provided by Montana State University Undergraduate Scholar’s ProgramFigure 1

Integration of skeletal traits in some passerines: impact (or the lack thereof) of body mass, phylogeny, diet and habitat

Morphological integration of the bird skeleton is of great interest because it relates to issues of specialization, plasticity, and rate of evolutionary transformations of a skeleton as a whole and its anatomical regions. Despite growing interest, the integration and modularity of the skeleton of birds, in general, remain little studied. We evaluated the change of relative sizes and integration of shapes of skull, sternum and pelvis, and factors that influence the covariation of these regions among passerines. Results of both standard and phylogenetic reduced major axis showed that the relative lengths of the most studied skeletal traits were largely determined by body mass. The length of the skull scaled isometrically on body mass, and the lengths of both synsacrum and ilium showed positive allometry. Within the skull, beak length was positively allometric, whereas cranium length was negatively allometric with body mass. We found the presence of covariation between shapes of skull, sternum and pelvis using standard partial least squares (PLS) analysis and absence of covariation between most of these blocks using evolutionary PLS analysis on phylogenetic independent contrasts. Evolutionary integration is confirmed only for shapes of skull and pelvis (dorsal view).

Camptodontornis gen. nov., a replacement name for the bird genus Camptodontus Li, Gong, Zhang, Yang, and Hou, 2010, a junior homonym of Camptodontus Dejean, 1826.

Camptodontus yangi Li, Gong, Zhang, Yang, and Hou, 2010 was erected for a complete enantiornithine bird skeleton from the Early Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation in Liaoning, northeastern China (Li et al. 2010). However, the genus name Camptodontus is a junior homonym of the beetle genus Camptodontus Dejean, 1826. Under Article 23.1 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN 1999) Dejean's 1826 name has priority.

Revising the Dead Art of Skeleton Preparation for Today’s Museum Collections

Many museums have an eclectic mix of skeletons in their collections. These curiosities from across the globe were processed from the carcass using a variety of techniques with varying degrees of success. The details of how these animals have journeyed from death to collection item are scarce. The old techniques and skill involved in constructing skeletons, from large down to the most delicate and tiny, can still be marveled at today. However some skeletons were poorly articulated, others incomplete or put together borrowing bones from another animal or bird. In the case of animals not known as live specimines ignorance may have been a factor in achieving an incorrect stance while other specimines were intentionally exaggerated to impress rather than appear true to nature. A selection of methods for the preparation of skeletons have been used, such as carcinogenic chemicals, bleaches, detergents and solvents, fresh and seawater maceration, flesh-eating dermestid beetles, boiling bones to remove the oils and flesh, and composting. Skeletons were articulated for display by drilling and pinning the bones, sometimes using irreversible glues or ferrous wire that rusted over time. Over the past 18 years I have prepared and articulated native bird and marine mammal skeletons for the Otago Museum collection. To ensure the bones are not contaminated by chemicals or physically damaged, methods and requirements have evolved over a relatively short time, as conservation has become an integral part of museum practice. This presentation will provide an overview of the fresh water maceration process, some lessons learnt, the articulation method developed using an external stainless steel wire armature to hold each bone in position, and organizing bones with safety, articulation and transportation in mind. I will share the journey from corpse to collection item of Autahi the leopard seal and other skeletons I have worked with.

Collections Support Services (CSS) - 25 Years of Improving Access and Care to our Nation’s Collections

Originally formed in the early 1980s as the Move Crew to move museum collections to the newly opened state of the art Smithsonian Institution’s Museum Support Center, Collections Support Services has evolved into a team of highly skilled museum professionals recognized as trusted experts, innovators, project managers, and problem solvers in all aspects of collections stewardship. We have packed, moved, and stored MILLIONS of objects across Smithsonian museums including the National Museum of Natural History and several of our art museums; the Freer Sackler Gallery, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, and National Museum of African Art. Our vast experience with Natural History collections has been with objects ranging from microscopic invertebrates, fragile bird eggs, 40’ war canoes, whale skulls, giant squids and EVERYTHING in between! Many of these collections came from overcrowded and dusty attics, basements, and warehouses prone to flooding, pest infestation, and poor climate control. We have spent the last 25 years moving these collections into our climate controlled storage pods furnished with new metal cabinets designed for long term preservation. Some of the unique packing and transportation methods we will highlight in this presentation are “airbags” that encompass fragile bird skeletons and uniform shipping containers made of ethafoam planks and old wooden drawers. In addition, we have designed and constructed aluminum pallets for oversized collections, specialized elephant skull pallets, and plaster jackets for paleo fossil specimens. These storage solutions have greatly improved access to collections by allowing researchers to study specimens with minimal handling necessary. This presentation will specifically demonstrate these and other dramatic improvements that we have made as well as highlight innovative solutions we developed to safely transport, store, and provide better access to our Natural History collections for future generations.

Medullary bone is phylogenetically widespread and its skeletal distribution varies by taxon

Female birds produce medullary bone to offset heightened calcium demand during egg shelling. The ephemeral nature of medullary bone hampers its observation in wild birds; thus, its phylogenetic distribution and ecophysiological correlates remain controversial. To address this, I candled a phylogenetically broad sample of bird skeletons spanning a large range of body sizes. I hypothesized that the presence of medullary bone would reduce or eliminate light penetrance through long bones. Candling suggested medullary bone was present in many adult female specimens, which was confirmed visually or with digital X-rays. This survey yielded the first unambiguous evidence of medullary bone in several taxa, including hummingbirds, tinamous, megapodes, and kiwi. The phylogenetic distribution of these new occurrences confirms that medullary bone is phylogenetically widespread among birds, including palaeognaths and passerines. The rapid assessment of complete skeletons supports a relationship between medullary bone and hematopoietic marrow, and establishes that the skeletal distribution of medullary bone varies taxonomically. Because the presence of medullary bone confirms sex, maturity, and reproductive status, its detection in specimens of known collection date can improve our understanding of life history and reproductive timing in wild birds, even decades later.

A new skeleton based flying bird detection method for low-altitude air traffic management

In low-altitude air traffic management, non-cooperation targets are the greatest threat to security of low-flying aircraft. Among various aviation fatalities, flying bird is the main factor with the highest risk and directs economic losses amounted to nearly 10 billion US dollars each year. Therefore, Flying Bird Detection (FBD) has attracted considerable attention in low-altitude air traffic management. In this paper, we propose a skeleton based FBD method via describing bird motion information with a set of key poses. To overcome the variability of birds, the skeleton feature is selected as a relatively fixed and common characteristic for the pose appearance of flying bird. Based on the geometric topology among some key parts of bird body, a set of key poses can be described by some extracted skeleton features, which are used to represent the bird motion information. Aimed at robustly handling with the pose variations, multiple pose-specific classifiers are individually trained to learn the representative poses of the flying bird. At the detection stage, the flying bird skeleton features are combined with extracted key-pose sets to perform the flying bird classification task from each image. Afterwards, the key-frame pose-change set and the consistency of the classification results from sequent images are employed to validate the final detection results. Experiments on flying bird datasets demonstrate the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed method.

Finds of fragmentary bird skeletons in the Middle Miocene of the northern Caucasus.

The first anatomically assembled skeletal remains of Neogene birds in Russia have been found. The head and a fragment of the vertebral column of a duck (Anatidae) and a hind limb of a perching bird (Passeriformes) from the Middle Miocene of the Krasnodar Region (Tsurevsky Formation) comprise the earliest known Miocene birds from European Russia. The skull of a very small duck (smaller than any extant species of Eurasian ducks) shows a combination of morphological characters characteristic of the extant species of Tadorna and Nettapus, and could belong to a representative of the fossil genus Mioquerquedula. This discovery supports a separate generic status for small-sized middle Miocene anatids from Eurasia, and suggests that they were more primitive than the extant Anatinae.

Insight into the growth pattern and bone fusion of basal birds from an Early Cretaceous enantiornithine bird

Bird skeletons exhibit remarkable modifications that allow for flight. The most distinguishable features are the fusion of the bones in the hand, feet, and pelvis into composite rigid and bony structures. However, the historical origins of these avian bone fusions remain elusive because of the rarity of transitional fossils and developmental studies on modern birds. Here, we describe an Early Cretaceous bird (120 Mya) that has fully fused alular-major metacarpals and pelvis. We discuss the manus and pelvis fusions across Paravian phylogeny and demonstrate that these features evolved independently across nonavian theropods, Enantiornithes, and Ornithuromorpha. The fusions of these bones are rare in known nonavian theropods and Early Cretaceous birds but are well established among Late Cretaceous and modern birds, revealing a complicated evolution pattern unrecognized previously. We posit that the developments of bone fusion were polymorphic close to the origin of birds, resulting in the varying degrees of fusion in Paraves. However, that development polymorphism appears to be fundamentally restricted along the line to modern birds by the Late Cretaceous, where all birds have a completely fused manus and pelvis. Such changes likely correspond to a refinement of flight capability. Alternatively, the degree of bone fusion in this primitive bird may have been related to modifications in genes or developmental paths. Future studies and fossil discoveries are required to clarify these hypotheses and pinpoint the developmental pathways involving the bone fusions in early avian evolution through to their modern pattern.

GASTRIC PELLETS WITH BIRD REMAINS FROM THE EARLY EOCENE OF MESSEL

Abstract: Gastric pellets (i.e., regurgitated indigestible food remains) are rare in the fossil record. Here, we describe three gastric pellets with bird remains from the early Eocene Messel fossil site in Germany. A small, ball-shaped specimen that contains various broken bird bones resembles the pellets of owls and may have been produced by the Messel owl Palaeoglaux artophoron, which would make it the oldest owl pellet identified so far. The two other gastric pellets with bird remains have more elongated shapes and probably stem from snakes or other squamates. Both contain partially articulated bird skeletons, one of which belongs to an undescribed species that is otherwise unknown from the abundant avian fossil record from Messel. The fossil pellets described here therefore not only contribute to a better understanding of the avifauna of Messel, but are also important for reconstructing trophic webs and add to an understanding of the early Eocene Messel ecosystem.

The Unfeathered Bird, by Katrina van Grouw with drawings and paintings by the author. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15134-2. $49.95/ £34.95

The first thing to say about this large book is that it is clearly a labour of love, the product of many years of thoughtful work. For this reason, if no other, it is intriguing. The second is that it is elegantly produced and imaginatively designed with hundreds of illustrations enlivened by a rich and detailed text. The reader can be forgiven for supposing that a book exclusively devoted to the bones and skeletons of birds might be a little dry. In this case, however, such a suspicion would be wide of the mark. This is an interesting, informative and entertaining book, and even those who imagine they have little interest in the subject matter might find it so. Attractive and varied use of the reproduced drawings and paintings (all by Ms van Grouw herself) keep the viewer interested from first page to last. But this volume is not just about the pictures. The author writes in a lively and informative way and not for a moment does her text become dull or tedious. And what can be said of the drawings which are indeed the basis and main thrust of the book? Katrina van Grouw may lack the ferocious drawing skills of some of the nineteenth century artists who illustrated Richard Owen's celebrated monographs on skeletal formations and fossils, but her pictures are honest, lively and accurate. Best of all, her fascination with the subject matter shines through and manages to engage the viewer. She can communicate by means of her pencil or brush an enthusiasm for subjects that might ordinarily seem drab and academic. She is certainly an infinitely better drawer than someone who was recently appointed honorary professor of drawing at The Royal Academy – but that is perhaps damning her with faint praise. In an age when good draughtsmanship is misunderstood and often dismissed, Katrina van Grouw has bravely persisted with her convictions, and at her best she produces images of some beauty. Purists with scientific sensibilities might baulk at the somewhat eccentric arrangement of the book; it certainly doesn't conform to the normal systematic order taxonomists use when grouping bird families. In an introduction the author explains with perfect clarity her reasons for arranging her material in the way she has. Whether or not the reader will find this illuminating is perhaps a matter of personal preference. Anyone who likes beautiful books, quirky subjects or just wants to be informed and entertained should get a copy of this one.

An embryonic enantiornithine bird and associated eggs from the cretaceous of Mongolia

Enantiornithes is the most speciose clade of Cretaceous birds, but many taxa are known from isolated postcranial skeletons. Two embryonic enantiornithine bird skeletons of Gobipipus reshetovi gen. et sp. nov. from the Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) Barun Goyot Formation of the Gobi Desert in Mongolia provide new insights into the anatomy, radiation, and mode of development of early avialans. In recent times, both enantiornithine and ornithuromorph birds are known from the Barun Goyot Formation as well as from the Djadokhta and Nemegt Formations. The 80-million-year-old Gobipipus skeletons encased within eggshells shows several features characteristic of enantiornithine birds. The wing skeleton and shoulder girdle show morphological features indicating that Gobipipus achieved sophisticated powered flight. Gobipipus reshetovi gen. et sp. nov. is quite distinct from the sympatric enantiornithine species Gobipteryx minuta from the same strata in many anatomical features. Phylogenetic analysis of 26 avialan ingroup taxa based on distribution of 202 characters indicate that Gobipipus is a basal member of enantiornithine birds along with Confuciusornis and shares more characters with ornithuromorphs than previously recognized. The embryonic nature of Gobipipus specimens sheds new light on the developmental history of enantiornithine birds. The well-ossified bones of the fore- and hind limbs, and fusion of many skeletal elements indicate a precocial mode of development in Gobipipus. Apparently Gobipipus hatchlings could walk away from the ground nests as soon as they emerged from their eggs. The asymmetry of egg poles are unique features of Gobipipus eggs (oogenus Gobioolithus) among Cretaceous avialans. The microstructure of the shell in Gobioolithus eggs with the embryos of Gobipipus is typical avian (of ornithoid basic type) and less ratite-like in morphology of the spongy layer than is that in the other possible egg-remains of enantiornitine birds (oofamily Laevisoolithidae).

Data-driven control of flapping flight

We present a physically based controller that simulates the flapping behavior of a bird in flight. We recorded the motion of a dove using marker-based optical motion capture and high-speed video cameras. The bird flight data thus acquired allow us to parameterize natural wingbeat cycles and provide the simulated bird with reference trajectories to track in physics simulation. Our controller simulates articulated rigid bodies of a bird's skeleton and deformable feathers to reproduce the aerodynamics of bird flight. Motion capture from live birds is not as easy as human motion capture because of the lack of cooperation from subjects. Therefore, the flight data we could acquire were limited. We developed a new method to learn wingbeat controllers even from sparse, biased observations of real bird flight. Our simulated bird imitates life-like flapping of a flying bird while actively maintaining its balance. The bird flight is interactively controllable and resilient to external disturbances.

Dramatic Fossils Suggest Early Birds Were Biplanes

Eleven beautifully preserved skeletons of early birds provide evidence that having four wings—not two—was the ancestral condition for early birds.

VEGETABLE MONSTERS: MAN-EATING TREES INFIN-DE-SIÈCLEFICTION

Gothic stories and fictionalizedtravel accounts featuring dangerous exotic plants appeared throughout the nineteenth century and were especially prevalent at thefin de siècle. As the century progressed and the public's fascination with these narratives grew, fictional plants underwent a narrative evolution. By the end of the Victorian period, deadly plants had been transformed from passive poisoners into active carnivores. Stories about man-eating trees, among the most popular of the deadly plant tales, reflect this narrative progression. The trope of the man-eating tree developed out of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century accounts of a much less dangerous plant: the Javanese upas. Tales about the upas described the tree as having a poisonous atmosphere which killed every living thing within a several mile radius. The existence of this plant was first reported by a Dutch surgeon named Foersch in a 1783 article published in theLondon Magazine, and the story was recounted several times throughout the century (“The Valley of Poison” 46). A typical account of the popular tale would highlight the exotic location and the mysterious power of the tree:Somewhere in the far recesses of Java there is, according to Foersch, a dreadful tree, the poisonous secretions of which are so virulent, that they not only kill by contact, but poison the air for several miles around, so that the greater number of those who approach the vegetable monster are killed. Nothing whatever, he tells us, can grow within several miles of the upas tree, except some little trees of the same species. For a distance of about fifteen miles round the spot, the ground is covered with the skeletons of birds, beasts, and human beings. (“The Upas Tree of Fact and Fiction” 12)Even though more credible adventurers revealed the inaccuracies of Foersch's report and thoroughly discredited the fantastic powers attributed to the upas, the story nonetheless took hold of the Victorian imagination. As a result of Foersch's widely-circulated narrative, the word “upas” was rapidly incorporated into the English lexicon; writers such as Erasmus Darwin, Thomas Carlyle, Charlotte Brontë, and Charles Dickens use the upas as a metaphor for a person, object, or idea that has a poisonous, destructive atmosphere. The upas was even a subject for nineteenth-century art, as evidenced by Francis Danby's 1820 gothic painting of a solitary upas tree in the midst of a desolate rocky landscape. Although the myth of the upas focuses on the tree's lethal powers, it is important to note that the upas is, relatively speaking, a very passive “vegetable monster.” The plant is potentially dangerous, but stationary; extremely isolated, it is only harmful to those who rashly ignore the warning signs and wander within the area of its poisonous influence. Even in these exaggerated accounts, the upas is a non-carnivorous monster that grows in a remote, uninhabited area of Java.