Size Of Protected Areas Research Articles

An integrated approach to prioritize restoration for carnivore conservation in shared landscapes

Global land use change has resulted in the loss and fragmentation of habitats and amplified the pace of species extinction. With carnivores being disproportionately at risk of range contraction, restoration is an important strategy to counter the impacts of habitat loss and fragmentation. While protection of public lands has been the cornerstone of conservation, private lands can play an important supplementary role. India harbors 23 % of the global carnivore species, threatened by a rapidly growing economy and high human densities. Using a social-ecological systems approach, we prioritized private agricultural lands for agroforestry in the buffer area of Pench Tiger Reserve. We applied systematic conservation planning tools and combined data on (1) habitat use of four carnivores (tiger, leopard, dhole, and sloth bear), (2) landowner willingness to modify land use through enrolment in an incentive-based program, and (3) monetary cost of program implementation, to identify priority areas for agroforestry based on their relative cost-effectiveness. Our integrated approach generated a configuration of priority areas that was markedly different than if we selected areas using ecological data only. Over an 8-year period, restoration of ~4900, ~8300 and ~12,000 acres through agroforestry was estimated to have a cumulative cost of USD 56 million, USD 95 million, and USD 140 million, respectively. Partnering with and incentivizing private landowners can expand the effective size of small and fragmented protected areas. Our approach can be applied to other shared landscapes, dominated by private ownership, to identify areas that deliver a compromise between ecological suitability, social acceptability, and economic viability.

Death by a thousand cuts: Small local dams can produce large regional impacts in the Brazilian Legal Amazon

In the Amazon Basin, large-scale problems, such as deforestation, over-fishing, climate change and large hydroelectric dams, are now recognized. However, many small-scale activities could exert significant cumulative, negative environmental impacts. We conducted a spatial analysis of small-scale dams used for hydropower and aquaculture in the central and southwestern portions of the Brazilian Amazon Basin. We found a very high density of small dams in these areas, and suggest that these dams, in the aggregate, are in fact pernicious because they are likely to have large impacts on the aquatic environment of these sub-basins in the Amazon. We recommend increasing the size and number of protected areas where dams are not allowed, and restricting the number of licenses for dams in order to reduce future intensification of their impacts.

Quantifying the relationship between prey density, livestock and illegal killing of leopards

AbstractMany large mammalian carnivores are facing population declines due to illegal killing (e.g. shooting) and habitat modification (e.g. livestock farming). Illegal killing occurs cryptically and hence is difficult to detect. However, reducing illegal killing requires a solid understanding of its magnitude and underlying drivers, while accounting for the imperfect detection of illegal killing events. Despite the importance of illegal killing of large carnivores in comparison with other causes of mortality, its relationship with potential drivers such as livestock density and wild prey abundance is rarely described.Using ranger‐collected data (2007–2019) of leopard killing events and data on covariates (livestock density, wild prey abundance, road length, protected area size, elevation) across Iran, we applied a single‐visit N‐mixture model to jointly model variation in detection probability and expected annualized number of leopard killing events.Over the study period, we estimated 428 leopard mortalities (95% CI 184 to 1,014), which was 45% larger than the observed number. Expected intensity of leopard killing was positively related to protected area size, livestock density and wild prey abundance. Detection of leopard killing was higher in areas with more developed road networks.Synthesis and applications. Ranger‐based monitoring data on poaching of carnivores are cost effective, but traditional analysis does not take into account imperfect detection. We show that innovative statistics (single‐visit N‐mixture modelling) can reliably quantify poaching events and address their drivers, at large geographical scales. We used the example of the Persian leopard across Iran, but our approach is also applicable to understand killing dynamics of other species. Results suggest that a high frequency of leopard killing is likely to occur in areas with >100 livestock per km2and >450 individuals of wild prey per km2. This highlights the need for improved management of livestock grazing and effective measures around high‐risk protected areas to mitigate human–leopard conflict and reduce killing of leopards.

Evaluate Ecosystem Values of the Saihanba Based on Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation and Cluster Analysis

This paper aims to provide a scientific, objective, and comprehensive analysis and assessment of the value of key forest ecosystem services in the area. Firstly, important indicators for evaluating ecological impact were screened through relevant data. Then, the weights of each indicator were determined through factor analysis. A fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model was established to quantitatively analyze the impact of the restoration project of the Saihanba on the environment. The correlation between the indicators was determined by evaluating the ranking of the correlation coefficients and analyzing the impact of Saihanba on the impact of dust resistance in Beijing. The carbon emission coefficient of each province is calculated based on the carbon emission and carbon absorption data of each province in China. Cluster analysis is used to determine which provinces need to establish ecological protection areas. Finally, the number and size of protected areas are determined.

Spatial constraints and seasonal conditions but not poaching pressure are linked with elevated faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in white rhino

Context Due to considerable declines in African wildlife populations, most large African mammals are managed inside protected areas. Protected areas come in various sizes, and have different environmental features, climates and management strategies (i.e. ‘hands-on’ or ‘hands-off’) that can influence an animals’ homeostasis. White rhinos (Ceratotherium simum simum) are found almost exclusively within protected areas where population sizes are driven by natural factors and poaching pressures. Aims Our aim was to understand the effect of natural and anthropogenic factors on the adrenocortical response of white rhinos within three protected areas. Specifically, we wanted to understand how poaching pressure, protected area size (<500 km2), season (wet and dry) and rainfall patterns were responsible for driving adrenocortical activity in white rhino. Methods To understand the relationship between rhino adrenocortical responses and different environmental and anthropogenic stressors, we quantified glucocorticoid metabolites in faecal samples (fGCM) collected from four populations within three protected areas (i.e. two small parks, one big park) during the wet and dry seasons. Key results We found differences in seasonal fGCM concentrations, with a 42% increase during the dry season, and no differences in fGCM concentrations between the high and low poaching areas. Additionally, we found fGCM concentrations in samples from the small parks were respectively 38% and 42% higher than in samples from the large park during both the dry and wet seasons compared. Conclusions Our results suggest that white rhinos may experience physiological stress in smaller parks, especially during the dry season when resources are limited. Implications By mitigating stress associated with reduced access to resources and spatial constraints, managers may better promote the viability of large mammals in small protected areas.

“Targets-Plans-Decision”: A framework to identify the size of protected areas based on the balance of ecological protection and economic development

A framework called “Targets-Plans-Decision” (TPD) was established for identifying the size of adequate protected areas (PAs) based on the combination of species distribution probability prediction method, systematic conservation planning (SCP) theory, and protection efficiency analysis, to achieve a balance between ecological protection and economic development. The first step of the framework is to determine the protection targets. In this study, the protection targets were defined as important habitats and important ecosystems. The second step is to identify the PAs plans of different sizes. We adopted a SCP method, which takes into account cost-effectiveness while delineating the PAs. The third step is to determine the optimal size of the PAs through ecological protection efficiency analysis. We constructed the protection efficiency index (PEI), which is the protection cost per unit area. Then we used Kaya identity (a structural decomposition method) to decompose PEI. The decomposed PEI included value density (ecological value per unit area) and value cost (cost to realize unit ecological value). By analyzing the changes of the two, the optimal size of the PAs can be determined. We took Nanchang as an example to conduct an empirical study to verify the usability of the TPD framework. The result shows the TPD framework proposed in this study can effectively identify the optimal size of PAs and contribute to forming a cost-effective ecological protection plan. When the size of PAs was set to 70% of the important habitats and important ecosystems, it was most beneficial for ecological protection. Furthermore, the optimal protection efficiency plan recommended by the TPD framework improved the efficiency of ecological protection. The TPD framework can serve as a basis for the size identification of PAs and also support the delineation of PAs worldwide.

Traditional landscapes to bolster the effective size of protected areas: an example of Bastimentos Island, Panama

Traditional landscapes to bolster the effective size of protected areas: an example of Bastimentos Island, Panama

Model of two competing populations in two habitats with migration: Application to optimal marine protected area size

The standard model of a single population fragmented into two patches connected by migration, was first introduced in the 1970s by Freedman and Waltman, since generating long-term research interest, though its full analysis for arbitrary values of migration rate has only been completed relatively recently. Here, we present a model of two competing species in a two-patch habitat with migrations between patches. We derive equilibrium solutions of this model for three cases of migration rate resulting in isolated, well-mixed and semi-isolated habitats. We evaluate the full range of effects of habitat, life-history and migration parameters on population sizes. Finally, we add harvesting mortality and define conditions under which introduction of a no-harvesting (protected) area may lead to increased maximum sustainable yield. The results have applications in mixed fishery management and the design of wildlife protection zones, including marine protected areas (MPAs).

The management effectiveness of protected areas in Kenya

Merely designating new and/or expanding existing protected areas (PAs) does not guarantee the protection of critical ecosystems and species. The management of PAs must be effective to sustain meaningful conservational outcomes. We inferred the management effectiveness of PAs in Kenya based on the representation of ranges and distribution of multiple diversity dimensions of terrestrial mammals and their association with governance and designation types. We hypothesized that different governance types underlie variable management efficacies, such that stricter-managed PAs have better habitats that attract more wildlife, translating to higher species diversity compared to less strictly-managed PAs, especially for focal species groups (large carnivores, large herbivores, and endangered species). The results showed nearly all terrestrial mammals in Kenya represented in at least one PA. However, the relative proportion of represented ranges were low, and analysis of spatial conservation prioritization showed significant expansion beyond current PAs needed to achieve a one third coverage of focal species’ ranges in a best-solution reserve system. Differences in PA governance and designation types were not systematically associated with diversity variances, and while there were more unique species in state-managed PAs than in privately-managed ones, averaged diversity coefficients were comparable between categories. Diversity variances explained by PA size and status year were low in a combined species pool but increased in focal species groups. These findings suggest that success in terrestrial mammal conservation in PAs in Kenya require clearly and formally streamlined definition, performance feedback, and collaboration terms between state-managed and privately-managed PAs.

Long-Term Conservation Effects of Protected Areas in Stochastic Population Dynamics

Terrestrial and marine protected areas are essential tools in mitigating anthropogenic impacts and promoting population persistence and resource sustainability. Adequately implemented protected areas (PAs) aim to promote conservation by increasing population size and reducing its variability. To resolve how these effects depend on PA features, I develop and analyze new models of stochastic processes that encompass the fluctuations generated by demographic or environmental stochasticity in PAs management. The stochastic model is built upon individual processes. In the model, density-independent mortality, migration between PAs and non-PAs, organism preference for PAs, and size characterize the features of the PA. The effect of PAs size is also examined. The long-term conservation effects are quantified using the coefficient of variation (CV) of population size in PAs, where a lower CV indicates higher robustness in stochastic variations. The results from this study demonstrate that sufficiently reduced density-independent mortality in PAs and high site preference for PAs and immigration rate into PAs are likely to decrease the CV. However, different types of stochasticity induce rather different consequences: under demographic stochasticity, the CV is always reduced because PAs increase the population size therein, but an increased population size by PAs does not always decrease the CV under environmental stochasticity. The deterministic dynamics of the model are investigated, facilitating effective management decisions.

Connectedness to nature: Mapping the role of protected areas

Connectedness to nature (CNT) is likely to be a strong influence on how local communities and stakeholders respond to designation and management of protected areas. This study explores relationships between CNT and location, using the Maltese Islands as a case study. The intensity of CNT, as expressed by a sample of household respondents across the islands (n = 401), was measured using the Nature Relatedness Scale (NRS). Respondents were also asked to indicate places that are significant for their own connection with nature. Results were mapped and analysed with respect to the location of two types of protected areas: Natura 2000 sites and Urban Conservation Areas. The bulk of special places of high CNT identified by respondents were located in or very close to Natura 2000 sites, regardless of respondents’ place of residence and regardless of protected area size. Protected natural areas are therefore important loci of community attachment with nature. Managers of such sites can potentially leverage this attachment to enhance community engagement in conservation and to contribute to increased nature connectedness in the community. However, this study also noted a not-insignificant contribution to CNT from urban or non-protected sites, providing support for adoption of landscape approaches that focus holistically on spaces that provide a context for daily life.

Site and species contribution to β-diversity in terrestrial mammal communities: Evidence from multiple Neotropical forest sites

In a scenario where escalating human activities lead to several environmental changes and, consequently, affect mammal abundance and distribution, β-diversity may increase due to differences among sites. Using the ecological uniqueness approach, we analyzed β-diversity patterns of ground-dwelling mammal communities recorded through comprehensive camera trap monitoring within eight tropical forests protected areas in Mesoamerica and South America under variable landscape contexts. We aimed to investigate whether the contribution of single sites (LCBD) and single species (SCBD) to overall β-diversity could be explained by community metrics and environmental variables, and by species metrics and biological traits, respectively. Total β-diversity was also partitioned into species replacement and richness difference. We related LCBD to species richness, total relative abundance, functional indices, and environmental variables (tree basal area, protected area size, NDVI, and precipitation seasonality), and SCBD to species naïve occupancy, relative abundance, and morphoecological traits via beta regression. Our findings showed that LCBD was primarily explained by variation in species richness, rather than relative abundance and functional metrics. Protected area size and tree basal area were also important in explaining variation in LCBD. SCBD was strongly related to naïve occupancy and relative abundance, but not to biological traits, such as body mass, trophic energy level, activity cycle, and taxonomic category. Local β-diversity was a result of species replacements and to a lesser extent differences in species richness. Our approach was useful in examining and comparing the ecological uniqueness among different sites, revealing the regional scale current status of mammal diversity. High LCBD values comprised sites embedded within smaller habitat extents, hosting lower tree basal areas, and harboring low species richness. SCBD showed that relatively ubiquitous species that occur at variable abundances across sites contributed most to β-diversity.

Retrodicting large herbivore biomass for the last glacial maximum on the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain (South Africa) using modern ecological knowledge of African herbivore assemblages and rainfall

AbstractHerbivore distribution throughout Africa is strongly linked to mean annual precipitation. We use that relationship to predict functional group composition of herbivore communities during the last glacial maximum (ca. 21 ka) on the now submerged Palaeo-Agulhas Plain (PAP), South Africa. We used metabolic large herbivore biomass (MLHB) from 39 South African protected areas, in five functional groups (characterized by behavior and physiology). We examined how modern factors influenced MLHB and considered the effects of biome, annual rainfall, percentage winter rainfall, and protected area size. Overall, biome was the most important factor influencing the relationship between MLHB and rainfall. In general, MLHB increased with rainfall, but not for the grassland biome. Outside grasslands, most functional groups’ metabolic biomass increased with increasing rainfall, irrespective of biome, except for medium-sized social mixed feeder species in savanna and thicket. Protected area size was influential for medium-sized social mixed feeders and large browsers and rainfall influenced medium-sized social mixed feeders, offering some perspectives on spatial constraints on past large herbivore biomass densities. These results improve our understanding of the likely herbivore community composition and relative biomass structure on the PAP, an essential driver of how early humans utilized large mammals as a food resource.

Habitat characteristics or protected area size: What is more important for the composition and diversity of mammals in nonprotected areas?

The margins of protected areas are usually considered to have greater forest degradation, and given that most mammals live outside protected areas, researchers and conservation practitioners are increasingly recognizing that nonprotected areas must be incorporated into conservation strategy. However, the strategy used to manage these areas still involves increasing the size of protected areas, while not considering the habitat characteristics and requirements of the species. In this study, during a 3‐year period, camera trap and habitat characteristic surveys were used to estimate composition, diversity, and habitat characteristics of mammals to determine habitat characteristics or increase the size of protected areas what should be considered first for mammals’ conservation in a nonprotected area near the Huangshan Mountains in Anhui Province, China. From June 2017 to October 2019, 18 species of mammals were recorded, more than in any other protected area nearby. The linear model analysis results showed that habitat characteristics of mammals were different and showed a significant correlation with their relative abundance. Most species were related to vegetation characteristics, except primates (Macaca thibetana), and rodents (Leopoldamys edwardsi). Therefore, to establish conservation policies for nonprotected areas, habitat characteristics should be of prime concern, followed by increasing the size of protected areas to provide effective refuge areas for species conservation.

Inclusive Governance and Biodiversity Conservation: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa

We examine the conservation effects attributable to changes in the size of community-governed protected areas (PAs) by adopting a generalized difference-in-difference (DID) design with a two-way fixed effect regression model and synthetic control methods. Panel data from the extraordinary datasets of the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPAs) and the Red List of International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are used for 32 Sub-Saharan African countries in this study. Our generalized DID estimates show that countries with community-governed PAs have reduced the IUCN Red List threat level by 17% for mammals. We also find stronger evidence of the effect of community-governed PAs on the IUCN threat level using synthetic control method that allows us to match the “intervention countries” with those countries that exhibit similar pre-intervention threat level. Our results are robust on alternate specifications in which we exploit variations in the cumulative size of the designated PAs differentiated by the IUCN governance types. We also compare the effect of strictly state-governed PAs with community-governed PAs. Our findings provide evidence in support of recent qualitative studies that find positive responses of community participation towards common goods that carry potential economic incentives. This paper contributes to the idea that inclusive environmental policies and legislations yield environmental gains not at the cost of social exclusion.

Identifying conservation priority areas for gymnosperm species under climate changes in China

China has a rich flora of gymnosperms. Gymnosperm species dominate and co-dominate more than half of China's forest area, but many of them are threatened and vulnerable to climate changes. This study mapped the geographical distributions of 209 gymnosperm species in China, modeled the niches of 124 gymnosperm species with adequate records of field occurrences using MaxEnt, and predicted their range changes under two dispersal scenarios (no dispersal and unlimited dispersal) and three emission scenarios (Representative concentration pathway [RCP] 2.6, RCP 6.0, RCP 8.5). To inform gymnosperm conservation facing climate change, we proposed a multi-criteria framework to identify conservation priority areas by integrating information on species diversity patterns and potential climate refugia, and detected gymnosperm conservation gaps with reference to the existing conservation networks. Our results indicated that the centers of species richness, threatened species, and endemism of gymnosperms in China were highly consistent in space and were concentrated in the subtropical mountains. By the 2070s, 64 (RCP 2.6)–88 (RCP 8.5) species would lose more than 10% of their currently suitable climatic niche, and 19 (RCP 2.6)–45 (RCP 8.5) species would lose more than 30%. Cathaya argyrophylla (endangered, EN), Pinus bungeana (EN), Pinus koraiensis (vulnerable, VU) and Torreya fargesii (VU) would be most vulnerable to the projected climate changes. Seven high conservation priority regions were identified, and a substantial proportion of the regions were found lack of adequate protection. The primary recommended measures included increasing the size of protected areas to cover more high priority regions and establishing populations in new sites as required ex-situ conservation efforts.

Forests in the Anthropocene

Disturbances have shaped most terrestrial ecosystems for millennia and are natural and essential components of ecological systems. However, direct and indirect human activities during the Anthropocene have amplified disturbances globally. This amplification, coupled with increasingly unfavorable post-disturbance climatic conditions or ecosystem management that intensifies the initial disturbance, is compromising the resilience of some ecosystems, with cascading effects on Earth system function and ecosystem services. Such dynamics are especially prevalent in forests, which are one of the most important ecosystems on Earth and provide countless ecosystem services for people and nonhuman species. Although climate change and its effects are ubiquitous, they do vary spatially in their intensity, and many ecological systems are more affected by changing land use than by changing climate. Understanding the geographic variation in relationships and feedbacks among climate, vegetation, disturbances, regeneration, and human activity is necessary for developing management strategies that will promote forest resilience (i.e., facilitate ecosystems tolerating and recovering from novel or intensified perturbations without shifting to alternative states controlled by different processes). Successful management strategies will vary geographically depending on the degree of departure from the ecological dynamics that preceded the Anthropocene and the spatial variability in drivers of change. As global environmental change accelerates, conservation areas, and the species and ecosystem services that rely on them, are particularly vulnerable. Where disturbances increase, expanding the size of protected areas and minimizing secondary anthropogenic disturbances are likely to be the only ways to maintain the minimum dynamic area that will cultivate adequate resilience.

Funding deficits of protected areas in Brazil

Protected areas (PAs) are the most effective public policy instruments to protect natural ecosystems and the services these ecosystems provide. Nevertheless, several PAs present a funding deficit because governments allocate fewer financial resources than those required to cover PA management costs. The variation in funding deficits within countries is not well documented because information about PA public investments and management costs are seldom available. We describe the variation in funding deficits across Brazilian federal PAs and propose a model that explains such variation by using PAs' characteristics and their zones of influence as predictors. We estimated that the 282 Brazilian federal PAs needed US$ 468 million to cover their management costs in 2016. However, the Brazilian government allocated only 15.5 % of these costs. Approximately 76.5 % of the PAs had funding deficits. Our model showed that: (1) funding deficit is negatively associated with PA age and the human development index but positively associated with PA size, (2) PAs in the Atlantic Forest and the Savannas and Drylands have lower funding deficits than PAs in the Amazon, and (3) PAs in the Atlantic Forest have lower funding deficits than PAs in the Savannas and Drylands. We found that the proportion of PAs with a funding deficit in Brazil is high and is comparable to the high percentage of PAs (75 %–100 %) with a funding deficit found in sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, there is evidence that the total annual funding deficit in the Brazilian PAs increased in the last decade. New policies, public-private partnerships, and innovative funding mechanisms need to be set to close the large funding gap in the Brazilian federal PA system.

What Drives the Erasure of Protected Areas? Evidence from across the Brazilian Amazon

Protected areas (PAs) are a widely used strategy for conserving forests and ecosystem services. When PAs succeed in deterring economic activities that degrade forests, the impacts include more forest yet less economic gain. These economic opportunity costs of conservation lead actors with economic interests to resist new PAs, driving their sites away from profitable market centers and towards areas featuring lower opportunity costs. Further, after PAs are created, economic actors may want PA downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (collectively PADDD). We examine reductions in PAs' spatial extent – downsizings (partial erasures) and degazettements (complete erasures) − that presumably reduce protection. Using data for the entire Brazilian Amazon from PADDDtracker.org, our empirical analyses explore whether size reductions from 2006 to 2015 resulted from bargaining between development and conservation. We find that the risks of PA size reductions are raised by: lower travel costs (as implied by distances to roads and cities), which affect economic gains and enforcement; greater PA size, which affects enforcement; and more prior internal deforestation, which lowers the impacts of size reductions. These dynamics of protection offer insights on the potentially conflicting factors that lead to PA size reductions, with implications for policymaking to enhance PA effectiveness and permanence.

Methods for prioritizing protected areas using individual and aggregate rankings

AbstractDespite their legal protection status, protected areas (PAs) can benefit from priority ranks when ongoing threats to their biodiversity and habitats outpace the financial resources available for their conservation. It is essential to develop methods to prioritize PAs that are not computationally demanding in order to suit stakeholders in developing countries where technical and financial resources are limited. We used expert knowledge-derived biodiversity measures to generate individual and aggregate priority ranks of 98 mostly terrestrial PAs on Madagascar. The five variables used were state of knowledge (SoK), forest loss, forest loss acceleration, PA size and relative species diversity, estimated by using standardized residuals from negative binomial models of SoK regressed onto species diversity. We compared our aggregate ranks generated using unweighted averages and principal component analysis (PCA) applied to each individual variable with those generated via Markov chain (MC) and PageRank algorithms. SoK significantly affected the measure of species diversity and highlighted areas where more research effort was needed. The unweighted- and PCA-derived ranks were strongly correlated, as were the MC and PageRank ranks. However, the former two were weakly correlated with the latter two. We recommend using these methods simultaneously in order to provide decision-makers with the flexibility to prioritize those PAs in need of additional research and conservation efforts.