Flower Size Research Articles

Chromatic Crescendo: Night light colours boost Chrysanthemum growth and bloom

This innovative study, conducted at the Research Farm, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, from 2018 to 2019, investigated the effects of coloured LED night breaks on Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. growth and flowering. Ten diverse cultivars were subjected to red, green, and blue light treatments from mid-August to late October, followed by natural day length exposure. Our findings reveal a nuanced interplay between light colour and genotype, significantly influencing plant architecture, flowering dynamics, and pigment production. Red light emerged as a maestro of stem elongation, producing the tallest plants (mean height 100.97 cm), while blue light conducted a powerful performance in stem thickening (mean diameter 7.81 mm) and stomatal development (up to 54.66 stomata per mm²). Green light accelerated flowering, with bud appearance as early as 55.79 days in ‘Thai Chin Queen’. Vase life peaked at 17.57 days under red light for ‘Snow Ball’, while flower size reached 19.24 cm in ‘Snow Ball’ under blue light. Anthocyanin content was highest (2.19 mg g-1) in ‘Thai Chin Queen’ under blue light, and carotenoids peaked (97.18 mg g-1) in ‘Pusa Centenary’ under blue light. This research unveils the potential for tailored light recipes in chrysanthemum cultivation, promising enhanced control over growth, flowering, and quality traits. Our results pave the way for innovative, sustainable practices in ornamental horticulture, offering a spectrum of possibilities for precision floriculture.

Effects of Biological Factors and Temperature Elevation on Stigmatic Receptivity and Pollen Tube Growth in Diploid and Hexaploid Plum Genotypes [Prunus salicina and Prunus insititia

ABSTRACTPremise of the study. Biological factors and environmental stresses are predominant elements affecting the progamic phase of sexual plant reproduction. Thus, new knowledge is needed to select and develop cultivars adapted to these changes. This work was conducted to evaluate the pollen growth dynamics and the stigmatic receptivity at normal and elevated temperatures, in 12 Tunisian plum genotypes selected based on six different biological factors. Methods. The pistils were hand‐pollinated using their own pollen, and then the dynamics of pollen tube growth and stigma receptivity of Tunisian plum genotypes were surveyed under ambient temperature and under 35 °C. Key results. Results showed that the differences in flower size, geographical origin and drought tolerance did neither affect pollen growth dynamics nor stigma receptivity. However, the polyploidization enlarged the stigmatic receptivity but does not affect the pollen dynamics. Flowering time and wild plantation fasten the pollen growth and enlarge the stigmatic receptivity. We assume that, in particular case, the flowering plants seem to opt for an enlarged stigmatic receptivity and a rapid pollen growth as reproductive strategies to ‘hold on for dear life’. Experiments conducted at 35 °C showed that the temperature elevation accelerates pollen growth dynamics, while it shortens the stigmatic receptivity period. In particular, two accessions: the wild plum ‘Sauvage’ and the late flowering ‘Tasstour Hamra Tardive’ showed faster pollen growth and enlarged stigmatic receptivity, compared to other accessions. Conclusion. The main relevant conclusion of this work resides in the identification of the best adapted Tunisian genotypes that could be selected as pollen sources to extend the pollination period. Especially, accessions presenting a tolerance to high‐temperature deserve serious attention.

Genetic Analyses of Flower, Fruit, and Stem Traits of Intergeneric Hybrids Between 'Honghuagqinglong' and 'Heilong' Pitayas.

Pitaya is renowned for its delicious taste, high nutritional value, and economic as well as ornamental appeal. Breeding new pitaya varieties can boost economic returns by appealing to consumers with diverse morphological traits. However, the genetic basis underlying key traits in intergeneric hybrids of pitaya has yet to be fully understood. This study investigates the genetic dynamics in flower, fruit, and stem traits, including segregation patterns and a mixed inheritance model for major and polygenic traits, in an intergeneric hybridization between 'Honghuagqinglong' (HHQL) (Hylocereus stenopterus) and 'Heilong' (HL) (Selenicereus grandiflorus). The study identified normal or skewed, normal distribution patterns in seven floral, fifteen fruit, and five stem traits, indicating their quantitative nature governed by multiple genes. Specifically, flower size and color exhibited a hereditary bias towards 'HL' characteristics, while 'HHQL' significantly influenced the coloration of fruit peel and pulp. Fruit weight and total soluble solids (TSS) content decreased, whereas stem traits exhibited broader and thicker dimensions with fewer thorns. This study offers valuable insights into genetic variation and the influence of major genes on flower, fruit, and stem traits between 'HHQL' and 'HL' intergeneric hybrids, providing a useful reference for parental selection in pitaya breeding programs.

Сравнительная оценка сортов Iris xiphium L. в центральной зоне Краснодарского края

Abstract. The assortment of early-flowering perennial flower crops used in landscape compositions is currently extremely limited. Xiphium (Iris xiphium L.) will diversify the palette of floral ornaments in the early spring period due to the different color, flower shape, and texture of the perianth lobes. However, there is no information on the results of scientific research with this crop aimed at establishing the adaptation of varieties to specific edaphoclimatic conditions, which determined the purpose of the work: to conduct a comparative assessment of Xiphium varieties in the central zone of the Krasnodar region. Varieties were evaluated by the timing and duration of flowering, plant height, length of peduncle and inflorescence, foliage, and flower size. The objects of research were 4 varieties of xiphium of Dutch breeding: Harmony, Carmen, Lion King, Royal Yellow. Scientific research was carried out in accordance with the methods used in floriculture. The studied varieties of Xiphium differed in the duration of interphase periods and flowering periods, which contributed to obtaining a conveyor of flowering products from the third decade of March to the third decade of May. In terms of plant height, the varieties belonged to 2 groups: medium in height (35-55 cm) – Harmony and Lion King and tall (55-70 cm) – Royal Yellow and Carmen. In terms of the length of the peduncle, all varieties turned out to be suitable for growing on a cut or composing various flower arrangements. The largest flower was noted in the Carmen variety, with a height of 7.3 cm and a diameter of 11.2 cm. The obtained results allow us to conclude that the conditions of the central zone of the Krasnodar region are favorable for the cultivation of xiphium, and therefore this crop should be included in the assortment of perennial flowering plants of the early flowering period. All the studied varieties of xiphium are suitable for use in landscaping according to a set of indicators, for the production of cut products it is advisable to grow Royal Yellow and Carmen. Keywords: Iris xiphium L., variety, early flowering, ornamental qualities.

Morphological Trait Variations and Flower Color Differences in Wild Crocus Species

This study investigates the phenotypic diversity of spring-flowering Crocus species native to Serbia by analyzing their morphological traits and flower color variations. Detailed phenotypic characterization was performed on seven species: C. alexandri, C. chrysanthus, C. heuffelianus, C. randjeloviciorum, C. rujanensis, C. variegatus, and C. weldenii. The study examines how morphological parameters of tested species diverged from average values during a hot and dry winter, resulting in smaller plants, earlier and shorter flowering periods, and reduced flower size, regardless of species. Hierarchical clustering based on morphological traits grouped the species into three clusters: the first cluster included C. alexandri, C. chrysanthus, C. rujanensis, and C. weldenii, characterized by the highest number of leaves and the lowest number of flowers; the second consisted of C. randjeloviciorum, distinguished by shorter plant height and the greatest number of flowers; and the third cluster comprised C. heuffelianus and C. variegatus, notable for the tallest plants, widest corms and leaves, and longest perigon segments. Grouping based on petal color components (L*, a*, b*, chroma, and hue) formed five distinct clusters, demonstrating differences in flower color. These findings are valuable for taxonomic classification, conservation measures, and breeding programs, which ultimately support the conservation of biodiversity and the promotion of ornamental plant cultivation. Flower color in particular has proven to be a reliable species indicator, as it remains constant despite the year and/or habitat. The use of a colorimeter can speed up the identification of species in the field and provides researchers and conservationists with a practical tool.

Monitoring of Broccoli Flower Head Development in Fields Using Drone Imagery and Deep Learning Methods

For different broccoli materials, it used to be necessary to manually plant in a large area for the investigation of flower ball information, and this method is susceptible to subjective influence, which is not only time-consuming and laborious but may also cause some damage to the broccoli in the process of investigation. Therefore, the rapid and nondestructive monitoring of flower heads is key to acquiring high-throughput phenotypic information on broccoli crops. In this study, we used an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to acquire hundreds of images of field-grown broccoli to evaluate their flower head development rate and sizes during growth. First, YOLOv5 and YOLOv8 were used to complete the position detection and counting statistics at the seedling and heading stages. Then, UNet, PSPNet, DeepLabv3+, and SC-DeepLabv3+ were used to segment the flower heads in the images. The improved SC-DeepLabv3+ model excelled in segmenting flower heads, showing Precision, reconciled mean F1-score, mean intersection over union, and mean pixel accuracy values of 93.66%, 95.24%, 91.47%, and 97.24%, respectively, which were 0.57, 1.12, 1.16, and 1.70 percentage points higher than the respective values achieved with the DeepLabv3+ model. Flower head sizes were predicted on the basis of the pixel value of individual flower heads and ground sampling distance, yielding predictions with an R2 value of 0.67 and root-mean-squared error of 1.81 cm. Therefore, the development rate and sizes of broccoli flower heads during growth were successively estimated and calculated. Compared with the existing technology, it greatly improves work efficiency and can help to obtain timely information on crop growth in the field. Our methodology provides a convenient, fast, and reliable way for investigating field traits in broccoli breeding.

Plant hormone signaling is involved in regulating flower bud size of daylily

To explore the role and metabolic differences of plant hormones in regulating the flower bud size of daylily, we collected the flower buds from two daylily varieties 'Datong Huanghua' and 'Dongbei Huanghua' at the young bud, green, yellowing, and yellow stages for transcriptome sequencing. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened, and the exogenous plant hormone spraying experiments were conducted. A total of 199 DEGs related to the biosynthesis and metabolism of plant hormones was screened out at different flower development stages of 'Datong Huanghua' and 'Dongbei Huanghua'. These genes regulated the biosynthesis and metabolism of six plant hormones: abscisic acid, gibberellin, auxin, jasmonate, cytokinin, and ethylene. The DEGs associated with auxin were the most, which suggested that auxin played a role in regulating flower bud development. The auxin response factor (ARF) presented up-regulated expression at all the four stages of flower bud development, indicating that ARF played a positive regulatory role throughout the flower bud development of daylily. The experiments with exogenous spraying of six hormones further verified that indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) significantly promoted the growth and increased the nutrient content in the flower buds of 'Datong Huanghua', suggesting that IAA played a role in regulating flower bud development. Our results laid a theoretical foundation for probing into the regulatory mechanism of flower bud development of 'Datong Huanghua' and 'Dongbei Huanghua'.

Assessing the Performance and Flower Quality of Dendrobium Varieties Grown Under Shade-net in Konkan Region

Dendrobium orchids are highly valued for their aesthetic appeal and durability, constituting a major segment of the global orchid market. A study was conducted in the Konkan region of Maharashtra (India) to determine the most suitable varieties for the specific climatic conditions of this area. The research was carried out under shade-net condition at the Hitech Nursery, College of Horticulture, Dapoli, in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) that included twelve varieties and thrice replications. The research revealed significant differences in various characteristics, including the timing of inflorescence emergence, spike length, the number of florets per spike, as well as flower length, diameter, and overall lifespan among different cultivars. During the findings, ‘Areedang Blue’ showed early inflorescence emergence as well as flowering (14.5 days), while ‘Thongchai Gold x Udom Yellow’ had late inflorescence emergence and flowering (19.89). The variety ‘White 5N’ was particularly noted for its extended spike length (57.60 cm) and consistently high florets per spike (10.66), while ‘Sonia Red’ was recognized for having the longest flower lifespan (62.59 days) with good flower size. Conversely, certain varieties such as ‘King Dragon’ and ‘Burana Jade x Madam Vipa’ did not expressed their potential to the local environment. This investigation offers prime information for the selection of best Dendrobium varieties suitable for cultivation in Konkan region under shade-net condition.

Is reinforcement a viable conservation strategy for the endangered perennial herb, Astragalus applegatei?

Reinforcing imperiled plant populations with transplanted individuals is a conservation tool that is increasingly used to counter the negative effects of land use change and habitat fragmentation. A reinforcement project's success is dependent on the survival of planted individuals and the support of the extant population's growth; thus, demographic comparisons of planted and extant individuals within the same population are critical to quantify success. We assessed long‐term demographic data from planted (9 years) and extant (7 years) individuals of a rare perennial herb, Astragalus applegatei, to quantify the success of a reinforcement project. We compared cumulative survival among extant and planted cohorts and constructed generalized mixed‐effect models to understand how age affected survival, flowering, and plant size of both planted and extant individuals. Overall, 9.7% of planted individuals survived after 9–11 years. Although young planted individuals had higher flowering percentages than extant individuals, our models for survival, flowering, and plant size were similar in planted and extant individuals as they aged. Cumulative survival curves among planted cohorts varied while they were similar among extant cohorts. Furthermore, there was evidence of recruitment by planted individuals, an essential benchmark of successful translocation projects. Combined, these results suggest that reinforcement can be a successful conservation tool for A. applegatei under the right conditions and may be used to inform conservation strategies for other imperiled herbaceous perennials.

The intermorph breeding system is responsible for reproductive success in heterostylous Nyctanthes arbor‐tristis L.

AbstractHeterostyly is a specialized reproductive system associated with self‐ and intramorph incompatibility. It reinforces the intermorph breeding system in heterostylous plant species. However, distyly has not been comprehensively studied in Nyctanthes arbor‐tristis. The present study demonstrates the floral traits, breeding system, fruit and seed set, and morph ratio in distylous N. arbor‐tristis. The length of style and filament showed reciprocal herkogamy between long style (L‐morph) and short style (S‐morph). Flower size, corolla tube size, stamen and anther length, ovary length, and pollen diameter were larger in S‐morph. However, the style was longer in L‐morph. Our results demonstrated strongly incompatible self‐ and intramorph pollination combinations. The intermorph pollination was compatible, showing normal pollen tube growth throughout the style and ovary. The embryo formation was also higher in intermorph interaction. Moreover, the fruit setting was higher when the intermorph plants grew in the vicinity of natural conditions. Collectively, all data indicate that N. arbor‐tristis is a distylous species with a self‐incompatible breeding system, resulting in less seed formation in nature.

Vegetative traits, floral biology, and mutualistic interactions in the tropical mountain shrub Ribes ciliatum (Grossulariaceae)

Plant species in tropical mountain ecosystems experience significant environmental variation across short spatial distances. These systems offer an opportunity to assess geographic variation in plant traits in relation to biotic and abiotic environments. We examined plant vegetative and reproductive traits in the shrub R. ciliatum across two native conifer forests in central Mexico. We measured plant height, number of branches, leaf size, flower production, floral morphology, floral longevity, and plant reproductive success in R. ciliatum populations found in fir forests (3100 m) and Hartweg's pine forests (subalpine habitat, 3700 m). We also quantified the level of pollinator dependence, pollinator visitation rates, and fruit consumption rates by frugivorous birds in both populations. Plants were shorter and had smaller leaves in the subalpine forest than in the fir forest. Floral longevity decreased in the subalpine forest, but flower production, flower size, and fruit weight remained similar across populations. Fruit set and pollinator visitation rates were higher in the subalpine forest; however, seed weight and fruit consumption rates did not differ between sites. Hummingbirds and bumblebees were the primary pollinators of R. ciliatum, and the bird Ptiliogonys cinereus was the most important fruit consumer at both sites. Fruit set was entirely dependent on pollinators. Reduced plant size in the subalpine forest coincides with a general pattern associated with high mountain environments. In contrast, reproductive characters had a closer relationship to the pollination environment. The absence of variation in flower size and shape was consistent with the similarity in the composition of the pollinator community. Meanwhile, compared to lower-elevation forests, the subalpine forest exhibited shorter-lived flowers and increased fruit set, associated with higher pollinator visitation rates. Ribes ciliatum is a key resource for pollinators and frugivores at a time of year when few other floral resources are available in these high-elevation mountain forests.

Evidence for diurnal bee pollination in the ancestrally hawkmoth-pollinated genus Crinum (Amaryllidaceae)

Abstract Shifts between diurnal and nocturnal pollination systems have been important in the radiation of the angiosperms. Here we examined the pollination ecology of Crinum campanulatum (Amaryllidaceae), an aquatic geophyte. Although visits by noctuid moths were observed in the evening, the flowers of C. campanulatum were visited mainly by honeybees and carpenter bees. The species was found to be self-incompatible, and flowers exposed to only diurnal visitors produced a higher number of fruits and seeds than those exposed to only nocturnal visitors. Overall seed production was not pollen limited. The floral scent was found to be dominated by aromatic compounds, including many with functional groups containing nitrogen. The chemical composition of scent did not differ between day and night samples, but floral scent emissions during the day were ~8-fold greater than those at night. Flower colour changes from white to a dark pink over four days from anthesis, which is associated with increased conspicuousness to bees. Ancestral state reconstruction revealed that long-tubed flowers pollinated by hawkmoths are ancestral and widespread in Crinum. These results are indicative of a shift from nocturnal to diurnal pollination in Crinum that is associated with a reduction in flower size and an increase in diurnal scent emission.

Advances in the Improvement of Oncidium History and Perspectives

Oncidium orchids, commonly known as “dancing lady orchids,” represent a diverse genus with significant horticultural and commercial value. Breeding programs aimed at improving Oncidium species and hybrids have developed over the past few decades, driven by their ornamental characteristics such as flower colour, size, form, fragrance and disease resistance. This review explores the traditional and modern approaches used in Oncidium orchid breeding, including classical hybridisation, mutagenesis, polyploidy and some biotechnological advancements such as tissue culture and molecular markers. Furthermore, the challenges and potential future directions in breeding Oncidium orchids, including the development of novel traits are discussed.

Effect of plant growth regulators and pinching on bud and flower size in Gaillardia

Effect of plant growth regulators and pinching on bud and flower size in Gaillardia

Genetic Variability, Heritability, Genetic Advance, Path Coefficient Analysis, and Inter-Character Relationships in Colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis [L.] Schrad.) from Southeastern Villages of the Benin Republic

Genetic improvement of crops for important traits requires reliable estimates of genetic variability. heritability and genetic advance of intending parent materials to identify traits useful in planning an efficient breeding program through selection. Hence, the effectiveness of genetic improvement of a crop depends on the variability in the morpho-agronomic traits of individual genotypes. Understanding the variation that exists will allow the breeder to determine strategies to be adopted in his breeding program. The objectives of the present study were to estimate the magnitude of genetic variability and advance, heritability and inter-character relationships by simple correlations and path coefficient analysis in 40 local colocynth genotypes from Southeastern Benin. The experiment was carried out in a randomized complete block design with three replications in three locations for three years. 34 morpho-agronomic traits were observed in each genotype. Analysis of variance revealed that effects of genotype, genotype by year or location and genotype by year by location interactions were significant (p ≤ 0.01 or 0.05) for all the characters. Phenotypic coefficients of variation (PCV) values were relatively greater than genotypic coefficients of variation (GCV) for all traits. High magnitude of phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation as well as high heritability along with high genetic advance were recorded particularly for qualitative traits. All yield components, except time to emergence, time to tailspins, leaf limb width, fruit number per plant, fruit width, seed length, seed tegument percentage and stem pubescence texture, had significant and positive correlations with yield attributes represented by thousand-seed weight (TSW) and seed number per plant (SNP). Path coefficient analysis indicated that all the characters (except leaf pubescence texture, stem pubescence texture, fruit design produced by secondary skin color and male flower size) had positive direct effects on TSW and partly SNP. Results suggested that most of the 34 quantitative and qualitative traits studied could be effectively used as selection criteria in the breeding program of Citrullus colocynthis varieties with high yield.

Exploring the wild almond, Prunus arabica (Olivier), as a genetic source for almond breeding

During the process of almond (Prunus dulcis) domestication, essential traits, which gave plants the plasticity for facing unstable environmental conditions, were lost. In general, the domestication process often narrows the natural genetic diversity. Modern selections (i.e., breeding programs) dramatically accelerated this genetic bottleneck trend to a few successful almond cultivars, which are presently the founders of most commercial cultivars worldwide. The concept of utilizing wild species as a source for important traits and for the enrichment of the gene pool was deeply discussed in previous studies. However, in almonds and other Prunus species, deliberate utilization of wild species as a genetic resource for breeding programs is quite rare. To address these significant challenges, we generated an interspecific F1 population between the Israeli almond cultivar Um el Fahem (UEF) and a specimen of a local wild almond species, Prunus arabica (P. arabica), originating from the Judea desert. This interspecific F1 population possesses high phenotypic variability, and sixteen segregating traits were phenotyped. Among the segregating traits, we were able to genetically associate six agriculturally important traits, such as leaf chlorophyll content (LCC), flower size, and fruit size. The alleles for Self-Compatibility (SC) and kernel bitterness were previously mapped in almond and were reexamined on the background of the distinctive wild genetic material of P. arabica. Finally, phenotypic interactions between traits were suggested, such as rootstock perimeter and canopy area that were positively correlated with total yield in the F1 population. This study is a first step towards developing a well-characterized almond interspecies genetic population. The availability of such a genetic tool with detailed phenotypic analysis is crucial to address and explore the profound influence of almond wild species in Prunus genetic research and breeding. By using the interspecific population as the infrastructure, we show the advantages and importance of utilizing wild relatives.

Spatial pattern and ecological adaptation of heterostylous and homostylous species of Primula in China

Abstract Floral syndrome is one of the key components of plant pollination syndromes, affecting variety of evolutionary and ecological processes in angiosperms. The evolutionary transition from self-incompatible heterostyly to self-compatible homostyly occurred repeatedly in angiosperm families. Although the evolution of heterostyly and homostyly has been deeply studied, our understanding on their differences in ecological strategies is still lacking. In this work, using the floral syndrome and distributions of the Primula in China we compared the spatial pattern of floral syndrome frequency and its climatic determinants. Our results reveal that distylous and homostylous Primula have similar primary centers of species diversity in southwest China, while distylous species have larger range size than homostylous ones. Temperature seasonality is the dominant climate factor of these geographic patterns, but its effect is much stronger in distylous than in homostylous Primula. Distylous species have larger flower size and number, and fruit size than homostylous ones. Climate, especially temperature seasonality mainly influenced species range size via its effects on floral syndrome. Our study suggests that homostyly is likely derived from heterostylous ancestors in similar geographical context, and larger reproductive investment in floral phenotype may provide compensatory mechanisms for obligate out-breeding heterostyly. Future investigations regarding the evolutionary history and tolerance or resistance to environmental change between distyly and homostyly may greatly advance our understanding of their spatial pattern and adaptative differences.

Optimizing Organic Fertilization for Marguerite Daisy (Argyranthemum frutescens): Impact of Application Rate and Frequency on Growth and Yield

Edible flowers are a new market for horticulture plants. Beyond their attractive shapes and colors, this group of plants contains secondary metabolites that benefit human health. This study aims to investigate the growth and flower yield of marguerite daisies using organic fertilizer at different rates and frequencies. The experiment was designed as a factorial, completely randomized design with two factors: fertilizer rate (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 times compared to the total nitrogen content in chemical fertilizer) and frequency of organic fertilizer application (every 30 and 15 days). Slow-release chemical fertilizer (Osmocote 13-13-13) was used as a control. The experiment reveals that the rate of organic fertilizer application significantly affected the growth and flower yield of Marguerite daisy. Still, the frequency of organic fertilizer application did not significantly affect it. Application at 1.5 times yielded the most significant growth and flower production compared to 0.5 and 1 times of application. When comparing the results of organic fertilizer application with 13-13-13 chemical fertilizer, it was found that applying organic fertilizer 1.0 times and 1.5 times every 15 or 30 days resulted in similar plant growth and flower size as with the chemical fertilizer (p>0.05). However, chemical fertilizer produced the highest chlorophyll index (SPAD), accumulated flower buds, and flower blooming per pot (p<0.05). The plant requires more than 1.5 times the organic fertilizer application to achieve flower production equivalent to chemical fertilizer.

Enhancing genetic diversity in Pelargonium: insights from crossbreeding in the gene pool.

This study aimed to enrich the Pelargonium gene pool through crosses and assess genetic variation among 56 genotypes from five Pelargonium species. Seventeen morphological descriptors were used, and NTSYS-pc software was employed to define genetic relationships, and a UPGMA-generated dendrogram reflected these relationships. Moreover, principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to determine which parameter was more effective in explaining variation. Results showed wide variation in genetic similarity rates, with the most similar genotypes being P. zonale 'c1' and a hybrid of P. zonale 'c1' x P. zonale 'c2' (90% similarity). According to the dendrogram results, it was observed that the genotypes were distributed in six clusters. In contrast, the most distant genotypes were P. zonale 'c11' and a hybrid of P. zonale 'c10' x P.zonale 'c11' (0.04% similarity). Hybrids from the female parent P. x hortorum 'c1' exhibited unique placement in the dendrogram. In the crossing combinations with this genotype, the individuals obtained in terms of flower type, flower color, flower size, bud size, early flowering, and leaf size characters showed different characteristics from the parents. Surprising outcomes in flower types, colors, and shapes contributed to gene pool enrichment, promising increased breeding variation success. The study holds practical implications for commercial breeding and serves as a valuable guide for future research endeavors.

Experimental evolution suggests rapid assembly of the 'selfing syndrome' from standing variation in Mimulus guttatus.

Ecological and evolutionary changes are likely to occur rapidly when outcrossing populations experience pollinator loss. However, the number and identify of plant traits that will respond to this form of selection, as well as the overall predictability of evolutionary responses, remain unclear. We experimentally evolved 20 large replicate populations of Mimulus guttatus for 10 generations under three treatments: pure outcrossing, mixed mating (10% outcrossing) and pure selfing. These populations were founded from the same genetically diverse and outcrossing natural population. After 10 generations, all measured traits evolved with flower size, phenology, and reproductive traits diverging consistently among mating system treatments. Autogamy increased dramatically in the selfing treatment, but the magnitude of adaptation only becomes clear once inbreeding depression is factored out. Selfing treatment plants evolved reduced stigma-anther separation, and also exhibited declines in flower size and per-flower reproductive capacity. Flower size also declined in selfing populations but this was driven mainly by inbreeding depression and cannot be attributed to adaptation towards the selfing syndrome. Generally, the mixed mating populations evolved trait values intermediate to the fully selfing and outcrossing populations. Overall, our experimental treatments reiterated differences that have been documented in interspecific comparisons between selfing and outcrossing species pairs. Given that such contrasts involve species separated by thousands or even millions of generations, it is noteworthy that large evolutionary responses were obtained from genetic variation segregating within a single natural population.