Country Size Research Articles

Understanding R&D transitions: From bottom to top?

Over the last five decades a growing number of governments in developed and developing countries have implemented targeted policies to increase the R&D to GDP ratio. However, there is little evidence regarding the feasibility of achieving large and permanent changes in R&D investment. We study the incidence and effects of episodes of substantial acceleration in R&D expenditure, using a sample of 62 countries with data from 1960 to 2007. Among other exercises, we use propensity score matching, synthetic cohorts, and panel VAR, in order to elucidate the determinants and effects of important increases in R&D intensity. We find that transitions to higher levels of R&D-intensity are a relatively infrequent phenomenon which occurs at relatively high levels of R&D intensity. Looking at long-run changes in R&D, we corroborate that few countries have been able to raise their R&D intensity from the bottom quintile to the top quintile of the global distribution. Our findings indicate that income, physical investment, education, and the size of the manufacturing sector increase the likelihood of transition, whereas country size and FDI decrease it. We find that transitions are positively correlated with subsequent greater income levels, and weakly to TFP growth. Finally, in our Granger tests with panel VAR estimates, we find that R&D acceleration Granger causes GDP growth, the level of patents, high-tech exports, and private and public R&D. In the case of private R&D, there is evidence of bidirectional causality with R&D acceleration.

Asymmetric effects of trade and FDI: The role of country size and bridge multinational production

Gains from trade in goods stem from three channels: (i) trade, (ii) domestic multinational production (DMP), and (iii) bridge multinational production (BMP). We develop a quantitative theory to measure the effects of trade barriers and country size on the gains from openness through each of these channels. We show that gains are sensitive to country size and larger in Europe than in South America (i.e larger in countries with low barriers). Country size is a crucial determinant of the contribution of each of these channels to the total gains from openness: smaller countries gain more. DMP is more important in large countries, whereas the BMP channel is more important in small countries.

Measuring the worldwide spread of COVID-19 using a comprehensive modeling method

BackgroundWith the global spread of COVID-19, detecting high-risk countries/regions timely and dynamically is essential; therefore, we sought to develop automatic, quantitative and scalable analysis methods to observe and estimate COVID-19 spread worldwide and further generate reliable and timely decision-making support for public health management using a comprehensive modeling method based on multiple mathematical models.MethodsWe collected global COVID-19 epidemic data reported from January 23 to September 30, 2020, to observe and estimate its possible spread trends. Countries were divided into three outbreak levels: high, middle, and low. Trends analysis was performed by calculating the growth rate, and then country grouping was implemented using group-based trajectory modeling on the three levels. Individual countries from each group were also chosen to further disclose the outbreak situations using two predicting models: the logistic growth model and the SEIR model.ResultsAll 187 observed countries' trajectory subgroups were identified using two grouping strategies: with and without population consideration. By measuring epidemic trends and predicting the epidemic size and peak of individual countries, our study found that the logistic growth model generally estimated a smaller epidemic size than the SEIR model. According to SEIR modeling, confirmed cases in each country would take an average of 9–12 months to reach the outbreak peak from the day the first case occurred. Additionally, the average number of cases at the peak time will reach approximately 10–20% of the countries’ populations, and the countries with high trends and a high predicted size must pay special attention and implement public health interventions in a timely manner.ConclusionsWe demonstrated comprehensive observations and predictions of the COVID-19 outbreak in 187 countries using a comprehensive modeling method. The methods proposed in this study can measure COVID-19 development from multiple perspectives and are generalizable to other epidemic diseases. Furthermore, the methods also provide reliable and timely decision-making support for public health management.

Advancing dementia care in Pakistan: challenges and the way forward.

Dementia encompasses a wide range of cognitive and psychological impairments that hinder individuals' ability to carry out daily tasks effectively. In the context of Pakistan, the prevalence of dementia patients currently stands at ~150,000-200,000, reflecting the impact of the country's significant population size. This increase in numbers poses a substantial socioeconomic challenge, emphasizing the need to prioritize dementia within Pakistan's healthcare system. However, the allocation of resources and attention to dementia remains relatively low, leading to considerable difficulties in both diagnosing and treating affected individuals. The provision of comprehensive dementia care faces numerous obstacles, including limited public awareness, insufficient research initiatives, inadequate infrastructure, and a lack of specialized training programs. To address these challenges, the Pakistani government must acknowledge and address the stringent regulations governing the neuroscience industry, with a specific emphasis on catering to the unique needs of dementia patients. By doing so, they can ensure the delivery of high-quality care, essential support, and necessary resources for individuals living with dementia in the country.

Evaluation of China-ASEAN trade status and trade potential: An empirical study based on a gravity model.

The objective of this study was to identify factors influencing the development of China-ASEAN trade- from the total economic volume of both sides, distance, the population size of ASEAN countries, the construction of a free trade area, and the signing of the Belt and Road initiative, resource endowment per capita, the exchange rate between RMB and ASEAN countries, and the land area of ASEAN countries-to develop a conceptual framework for China-ASEAN trade potential. This study uses panel data from 2001 to 2021 that is evenly distributed among 10 ASEAN countries to serve as the dataset. Firstly, the unit roots are checked and the cointegration relationships are examined, focusing on the heterogeneity test. Based on the classical trade gravity model, the innovative trade gravity model with key influencing factors is constructed. On the basis of the classical trade gravity model, an innovative trade gravity model of key influencing factors is constructed. The trade potential model is used to calculate the direct trade potential coefficient between China and ASEAN countries, which points out the direction for the sustainability of bilateral trade. This study finds that among the factors affecting China-ASEAN bilateral trade, the total economic output of both sides, distance, population size of ASEAN countries, the construction of the FTA, and the signing of the Belt and Road Initiative all have a positive impact on bilateral trade. Three influencing factors, namely per capita resource endowment, exchange rate between RMB and ASEAN countries, and the size of ASEAN countries, have a negative impact on bilateral trade, but to a lesser extent. The trade potential between China and Vietnam falls into the category of potential re-modelling, indicating that both sides are currently utilizing their trade potential to the greatest extent possible, that trade growth space is limited, and that new trade opportunities must be discovered. The trade potential index between China and nine ASEAN countries, excluding Vietnam, is in the potential-exploiting category, indicating that the potential has not been fully utilized by both sides and that there is still room for growth in the scale of trade between the two countries. With the shift of the world's economic center of gravity in the direction of Asia following COVID-19, China and ASEAN countries should seize the opportunity to strengthen their comprehensive strength and economic aggregates and further develop China's constructive role in the regional organization. The signing of the Belt and Road Initiative and the construction of a free trade zone has had a positive effect on the development of bilateral trade. Propose that: positive trade factors should continue to be strengthened, trade barriers should be removed, and new dynamics of bilateral trade growth should be enhanced.

The impact of fiscal decentralization on economic growth: A comparative analysis of selected African and OECD countries

Fiscal decentralization, widely believed to be one essential tool to boost economic growth, is typically presented as something that works for developed countries. However, this needs to be investigated, which is what this paper aims to do. This paper investigates the relationship between fiscal decentralization and economic growth, specifically focusing on its applicability in both developed and developing countries. Using cross-sectional data from 23 African and 23 OECD countries, we employ two-stage estimation methods, including two-stage least squares (2SLS), Generalized Method of Moments (GMM), and Limited Information Maximum Likelihood (LIML), to address concerns related to endogeneity. The inclusion of instruments representing country size, ethnoreligious diversity, and administrative structure enhances the analysis. The dependent variable is based on average values for the five-year period between 2015 and 2019, while the explanatory variables are derived from data in 2017, representing the midpoint of the 2013–2021 period. The results highlight the effectiveness of the 2SLS method in estimating the relationship between fiscal decentralization, control variables, instrument variables, and per capita GDP. Empirical findings indicate significant positive impacts of both expenditure decentralization and revenue decentralization on per capita GDP, holding true for both developed and developing countries, with a slightly stronger effect observed in the latter. These results underscore the potential benefits of fiscal decentralization across diverse economies and offer valuable insights for policymakers.The study uses cross-sectional data from 23 African and 23 OECD countries and applies two-stage estimation methods to effectively address the endogeneity issue in the modeling. A variety of such methods in two-stage least squares (2SLS), Generalized Method of Moments (GMM), and Limited Information Maximum Likelihood (LIML) are applied and compared against the ordinary least squares (OLS) method. Variables that represent the size, the ethnoreligious diversity and the type of administrative structure of the countries are employed as instruments. The 2SLS method proved to excellently estimate the relationship between the fiscal decentralization terms as well as other control and instrument variables and the per capita GDP. The findings from the empirical analysis showed that both expenditure decentralization and revenue decentralization have significant positive impacts on per capita GDP of a country. This relationship holds not only for developed countries but also for developing ones, even to a slightly better degree in the latter.

Polity Size Matters? The Effect of Country Size on Politicians' Professionalization

AbstractThis article examines the effect of country size on the professionalization of politicians in six European micro-states and a large-scale democracy – Germany – since 1980. The article revisits an ongoing debate about the extent to which either country size or government size are causal factors in the individual professionalization process. Using an original dataset consisting of 6,940 parliamentary mandates – 2,809 individuals – in national parliaments, the article shows that country size is a determinant of the degree of politicians' professionalization. The article further demonstrates that political parties' gatekeeper role is the key causal mechanism explaining the influence of population size on politicians' professionalization.

Using multi-platform LiDAR to guide the conservation of the world's largest temperate woodland

Australia's Great Western Woodlands are the largest intact temperate woodland ecosystem on Earth, spanning an area the size of the average European country. These woodlands are part of one of the world's biodiversity hotspots and, despite subsisting on just 200–400 mm of rainfall a year, can store considerable amounts of carbon. However, they face growing pressure from a combination of climate change and increasingly frequent and large wildfires, which have burned over a third of these slow-growing, fire-sensitive woodlands in last 50 years alone. To develop conservation strategies that bolster the long-term resilience of this unique ecosystem, we urgently need to understand how much old-growth woodland habitat remains intact and where it is distributed across this vast region. To tackle this challenge, we brought together data from an extensive network of field plots distributed across the region and combined this with information on vegetation 3D structure derived from drone, airborne and spaceborne LiDAR. Using this unique dataset, we developed a novel modelling framework to generate the first high-resolution maps of woodland tree size and age structure across the entire region. We found that 41.2% of the woodland habitat is covered by old-growth stands, equivalent to an area of approximately 39,187 km2. Only 10% of these old-growth woodlands fall within current protected areas managed by the state government. Instead, most remaining old-growth woodlands are found either within the Ngadju Indigenous Protected Area (26.9%) or outside of formal protected areas on leaseholds and privately owned lands (57.2%). Our maps of woodland size and age structure will help guide the targeted management and conservation of the Great Western Woodlands. Moreover, by developing a robust pipeline for integrating LiDAR data from multiple platforms, our study paves the way for mapping the 3D structure and carbon storage of open and heterogeneous woodland ecosystems from space.

The determinants of China’s outward foreign direct investment in ASEAN: A panel ARDL approach

Research aims: This paper aims to examine factors influencing China's outward foreign direct investment (FDI) in ASEAN economies.Design/Methodology/Approach: The Kao panel cointegration approach and the Panel ARDL model were used in this study to estimate the long-run and short-run relationship between variables. This method is deemed superior to other panel models since it is advantageous when dealing with non-stationary variables at the level or I(1).Research findings: The estimation results provide empirical evidence that in the long run, ASEAN market size, exchange rate, import and export levels between China and ASEAN countries, inflation rate, and institutional factors such as the index of corruption control and political stability are the primary determinants of the flow of outward foreign direct investments from China to ASEAN economies. Theoretical contribution/Originality: This study provides additional evidence regarding the factors influencing direct investment flow from the home country to the host country, known as an outward foreign direct investment (OFDI). Previous studies have robustly proven that OFDI flows are influenced by factors such as the resources and market size of the host country, as predicted by location theory. This study further provides evidence that host country trade policy, the level of competitiveness demonstrated by favorable exchange rates, and institutional factors like corruption control and political stability are other important determinants in the context of China’s OFDI in ASEAN countries.Practitioner/Policy implication: Maintaining open trade policy, a competitive exchange rate and significant improvement in law and order would be suitable policies for ASEAN economies to attract more investment from China and other countries.Research limitation/Implication: This study did not cover other variables, such as investment facilities provided by the host government. In addition, economic packages like tax holidays and import-tariff discounts are common policies ASEAN countries provide. Hence, this variable can be considered in future research.

FDI, international trade and global value chains (GVCs): India's GVC participation, position and value capture

Using OECD Trade in Value Added (TiVA) database (2021, 2022) and Asian Development Bank (2022) dataset, this paper indicates that though India's GVC participation rate has risen over time, it was lower than that of several economies in Asia-Pacific and its relative share in participation gains was marginal. Nevertheless, India's relative share in forward and backward GVC content to (and from) the region was not as peripheral. Raising net participation gains will require key enablers, and stimulating the mutually reinforcing FDI-GVC relationship by attracting quality FDI inflows. Findings based on the panel, fixed-effects model support the hypotheses that production-based GVC participation, revealed comparative advantage based on value-added exports, the country's relative economic size, and economic complexity (in medium-to-high technology manufacturing sectors) positively affect economic upgrading through capturing a greater share in world's domestic value-added in an industry while relative GVC position has a negative effect.

An Epidemiological Analysis for Assessing and Evaluating COVID-19 Based on Data Analytics in Latin American Countries.

This research provides a detailed analysis of the COVID-19 spread across 14 Latin American countries. Using time-series analysis and epidemic models, we identify diverse outbreak patterns, which seem not to be influenced by geographical location or country size, suggesting the influence of other determining factors. Our study uncovers significant discrepancies between the number recorded COVID-19 cases and the real epidemiological situation, emphasizing the crucial need for accurate data handling and continuous surveillance in managing epidemics. The absence of a clear correlation between the country size and the confirmed cases, as well as with the fatalities, further underscores the multifaceted influences on COVID-19 impact beyond population size. Despite the decreased real-time reproduction number indicating quarantine effectiveness in most countries, we note a resurgence in infection rates upon resumption of daily activities. These insights spotlight the challenge of balancing public health measures with economic and social activities. Our core findings provide novel insights, applicable to guiding epidemic control strategies and informing decision-making processes in combatting the pandemic.

Urban Residential Water Demand and Household Size: A Robust Meta‐Regression Analysis*

We present the results of a meta‐analysis of household‐size water demand elasticity. The analysis is based on 75 primary studies. As there is evidence of publication bias, publication bias–corrected estimates are reported. For indoor water use, we find that in countries with gross domestic product (GDP) per capita below $10,000, the household‐size elasticity is approximately 0.4–0.5, and in countries with GDP per capita above $10,000, it is approximately 0.5–0.6. For outdoor water use, we find that there is no increase in water use as household size increases, at low incomes (GDP less than $5000 per capita), but the effect becomes positive at higher incomes. In countries with a GDP per capita between $5000 and $15,000, the household‐size outdoor water use elasticity is approximately 0.1, and in countries with a GDP per capita above $15,000, it is approximately 0.2. The positive household‐size elasticity implies that the cost of meeting basic water needs, per person, increases with household size in countries that use increasing block pricing for water. The use of a single volumetric price, equal to marginal cost, combined with a fixed charge, would lessen this effect and also improve system efficiency.

Emotional and behavioural appeals as key determinants in Ghanaian consumer pre-banking behaviour

PurposeThe pre-purchase phase of consumer behaviour for financial services, especially retail banking, has been under-researched. This study explored the determinants of consumer pre-banking behaviour (BAB) in the Ghanaian banking sector.Design/methodology/approachA quantitative approach was employed by extending the constructs of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and technology acceptance model (TAM) to include affective and conative components and utilising a partial least squares-structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) analysis.FindingsAffective, conative, cognitive attitude, emotions and perceived trust (PT) were significant determinants of consumer pre-BAB. From a practical point of view, marketing managers need to be emotionally connected with their potential consumers to enhance the propensity of automatic purchasing.Research limitations/implicationsThe country context, sample type and size are limitations and so extending the study to other countries, with larger samples and additional insights on subjective norms (SNs), could help improve the model's efficacy.Originality/valueThe results presented in this paper are relevant and original because it is the only study, based on potential customers in an emergent economy context, to advocate the need for an emotional connection with potential consumers at the pre-banking stage to enhance the possibility of automatic purchasing.

Optimal capacity sharing for global genomic surveillance

Recent technological advances and substantial cost reductions have made the genomic surveillance of pathogens during pandemics feasible. Our paper focuses on full genome sequencing as a tool that can serve two goals: the estimation of variant prevalences, and the identification of new variants. Assuming that capacity constraints limit the number of samples that can be sequenced, we solve for the optimal distribution of these capacities among countries. Our results show that if the principal goal of sequencing is prevalence estimation, then the optimal capacity distribution is less than proportional to the weights (e.g., sizes) of countries. If, however, the main aim of sequencing is the detection of new variants, capacities should be allocated to countries or regions that have the most infections. Applying our results to the sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 in 2021, we provide a comparison between the observed and a suggested optimal capacity distribution worldwide and in the EU. We believe that following such quantifiable guidance will increase the efficiency of genomic surveillance for pandemics.

Analysis on Location Choice of China's OFDI in RCEP Countries

Based on the panel data of RCEP countries from 2007 to 2021, this article analyzes the location choice of China's outward foreign direct investment (OFDI) in RCEP countries. The results show that China's OFDI to RCEP countries is influenced by many factors. The market size and labor force of the host country significantly promote it, while the host country’s tax burden and natural resource endowment significantly inhibit it. In order to better leverage the advantages of the RCEP, China should take a more active role in implementing the RCEP, improving labor market security system, optimizing its investment in RCEP countries, and actively integrating into the host society.

Research Note: Greater risk and a smaller opportunity: The opportunity space of SME internationalization in lower-income countries

Why do small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) from lower-income countries internationalize using high-commitment modes? In this exploratory, qualitative study of 22 SMEs from South Africa (a middle-income country) and Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe (low-income countries), we document that the SMEs typically have both a greater tolerance for risk, likely due to the region from which they originate, and an appetite for opportunities smaller than what would be acceptable to multinational enterprises (MNEs) from advanced economies. This provides a very different opportunity space for the two types of enterprises. The size of the home country seems to matter: SMEs from middle-income countries often work on their own and target other emerging markets, but in poorer countries, SMEs often work synergistically with MNEs from more advanced economies, acting as their “delivery arm” into the small markets in their immediate region. This opens up a new way of understanding MNE-led development. Facilitating the development of partnerships between local SMEs and advanced MNEs is a potentially fruitful avenue that policymakers from poor countries can pursue to help their countries open to the benefits of internationalization.

Adapting to the new normal: The impact of remote work on firm performance in Jordan and Morocco

AbstractBusinesses have been impacted particularly hard by the COVID‐19 pandemic, resulting in a decline in productivity. Whether a remote work policy boosts the firm’s productivity is still debatable. We use the COVID‐19 World Bank Enterprise Survey, a cross‐sectional dataset that covers Jordan and Morocco, to empirically examine this question. We use the propensity score matching technique to estimate the causal effect between remote work and firm performance. Results suggest the existence of a positive impact, suggesting that remote work policies cause an increase in productivity. In a further investigation, we perform our regression by country and firm size. Coefficients are found to remain positive in both countries but statistically significant only in Morocco. Regarding firm size, coefficients are found to be positive and statistically significant across all models. The paper offers some recommendations for policymakers in both countries to mitigate the ongoing crisis on firm performance.

Cross-cultural differences in social capital and community resilience perceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic

AbstractThrough online surveys, this study examined both cross-national (U.S. vs. China) and intra-national (i.e., community size) cultural differences in social capital and community resilience perceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Across both U.S. and China, offline bonding social capital was found to be a crucial prerequisite for community resilience perceptions. Besides offline bonding, Chinese participants relied more on social media bridging social capital while U.S. participants relied more on social media bonding relationships to develop community resilience perceptions. Though the U.S. sample exhibited higher social capital, Chinese sample reported higher community resilience perceptions. Within each country, individual differences and community sizes made a difference in cultivating social capital and community resilience perceptions.

Healthcare Management in India: Issues, Challenges and Prospects

Healthcare management in India faces numerous challenges due to the country's size, population, and socio-economic diversity. The issues include inadequate funding, insufficient infrastructure, scarcity of healthcare professionals, and high out-of-pocket expenses, among others. These challenges have a significant impact on healthcare accessibility, quality, and affordability. Despite the challenges, healthcare management in India presents several prospects. For instance, the government is increasing healthcare spending, introducing new policies, and promoting public-private partnerships to address the challenges. Additionally, there is growing interest in telemedicine, digital health, and medical tourism, which can enhance healthcare accessibility and affordability. Healthcare management in India faces significant challenges, but with strategic planning and investment, there are opportunities for improving healthcare accessibility, quality, and affordability. The Purpose of this paper is to explore the Evolution of Healthcare, Growth of the Healthcare Sector, Contribution of Ayurveda, Charaka Samhita and Yoga to Healthcare, Drivers of Healthcare Sector, Challenges to Healthcare Sector and Prospect of Industry 4.0 and Healthcare Sector.

The Role Of Institutional Quality, Foreign Direct Investment, And Country Size On Trade Openness In The ASEAN-6 Region

The current development of globalization has led to a very fundamental transformation in the economic system. the phenomenon of globalization cannot be avoided by any country, moreover countries that previously isolated it from the outside world cannot be avoided either. Therefore any country will still be affected by globalization, so that it will create international trade that is increasingly spreading from every country. This study aims to analyze the role of institutional quality through government effectiveness and regulatory quality, foreign direct investment, and country size on trade openness in the ASEAN-6 region during the 2002-2021 period using panel data analysis techniques. in using the panel data technique based on the best testing through the Chow test and the Hausman test that the best model used in this study is the Fixed Effect Model (FEM) which shows the variables of government effectiveness and investment directly have a positive and significant effect on trade openness. while the quality of regulations and country size have a negative and significant effect on trade openness in the Asean Region.