Sixth Millennium Research Articles

Direct dating reveals the early history of opium poppy in western Europe

This paper aims to define the first chrono-cultural framework on the domestication and early diffusion of the opium poppy using small-sized botanical remains from archaeological sites, opening the way to directly date minute short-lived botanical samples. We produced the initial set of radiocarbon dates directly from the opium poppy remains of eleven Neolithic sites (5900–3500 cal BCE) in the central and western Mediterranean, northwestern temperate Europe, and the western Alps. When possible, we also dated the macrobotanical remains originating from the same sediment sample. In total, 22 samples were taken into account, including 12 dates directly obtained from opium poppy remains. The radiocarbon chronology ranges from 5622 to 4050 cal BCE. The results show that opium poppy is present from at least the middle of the sixth millennium in the Mediterranean, where it possibly grew naturally and was cultivated by pioneer Neolithic communities. Its dispersal outside of its native area was early, being found west of the Rhine in 5300–5200 cal BCE. It was introduced to the western Alps around 5000–4800 cal BCE, becoming widespread from the second half of the fifth millennium. This research evidences different rhythms in the introduction of opium poppy in western Europe.

A CONSIDERATION OF EASTWARD SPREAD OF THE SAMARRAN PHENOMENON IN THE LIGHT OF NEW EVIDENCE ALONG THE ZAGROS PIEDMONT

The Samarran phenomenon has been under discussion since the early 20th century. Over the past several decades, increasing evidence has indicated that it was geographically distributed in a very large area across the Near East. In this regard, the eastward spread of the Samarran phenomenon across the Iranian frontier was little known, because related finds had mostly been recovered in the 1960–70s. This article highlights the discovery of new evidence in the transitional zone that connects the Zagros highlands with the Mesopotamian lowlands. During recent surveys in the plains of Mehran, Meimak, Soumar and Sarpol-e Zahab, a number of sites were found. They yielded ceramics identical with those already reported from nearby late Samarran sites such as Chogha Mami, Songor A and Rihan I. Chronologically, surface materials indicate that these newly found Iranian sites should belong to the late phase of Samarran period, coinciding with the so-called Chogha Mami Transitional (CMT). As seen from the natural setting of the sites along streams, and due to the predominance of nomadic herders in this transitional zone, we may assume that transhumant herders played a role in the eastward spread of the late Samarran phenomenon via the river valleys and that the site's inhabitants might have been familiar with a primitive irrigation system. Furthermore, it is speculated that the cold dry climatic event of 8.2 kya might have resulted in an increased intensity of population in the lowlands. Nevertheless, the subsequent climatic optimum appears to have paved the way for the eastward spread of late Samarran/CMT elements. Regardless of what was the major trigger of such an expansion, however, intensive economic interactions of societies probably played a role in the very early sixth millennium B.C., when natural raw materials such as bitumen were imported from western/southwestern Iran to central/southern Mesopotamia.

THE LATER PREHISTORY OF THE SHAHRIZOR PLAIN, KURDISTAN REGION OF IRAQ: FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS AT GURGA CHIYA AND TEPE MARANI

The Shahrizor Prehistory Project has targeted prehistoric levels of the Late Ubaid and Late Chalcolithic 4 (LC4; Late Middle Uruk) periods at Gurga Chiya (Shahrizor, Kurdistan region of northern Iraq), along with the Halaf period at the adjacent site of Tepe Marani. Excavations at the latter have produced new dietary and environmental data for the sixth millennium B.C. in the region, while at Gurga Chiya part of a burned Late Ubaid tripartite house was excavated. This has yielded a promising archaeobotanical assemblage and established a benchmark ceramic assemblage for the Shahrizor Plain, which is closely comparable to material known from Tell Madhhur in the Hamrin valley. The related series of radiocarbon dates gives significant new insights into the divergent timing of the Late Ubaid and early LC in northern and southern Mesopotamia. In the following occupation horizon, a ceramic assemblage closely aligned to the southern Middle Uruk indicates convergence of material culture with central and southern Iraq as early as the LC4 period. Combined with data for the appearance of Early Uruk elements at sites in the adjacent Qara Dagh region, this hints at long-term co-development of material culture during the fourth millennium B.C. in southeastern Iraqi Kurdistan and central and southern Iraq, potentially questioning the model of expansion or colonialism from the south.

Godin VI Painted Pottery in the Eastern Central Zagros

Godin VI Painted Pottery in the Eastern Central Zagros

Early evidence of sheep lambing de-seasoning in the Western Mediterranean in the sixth millennium BCE

Today, sheep farmers in the Western Mediterranean de-season their ewes to achieve autumnal births. This strategy contrasts sharply with spring lambing further north, and provides benefits in terms of out-of-season availability of animal products. These competences are closely linked to specific sheep physiology and favorable Western Mediterranean climatic conditions. It is not known exactly how far back in the past the ability to de-season Mediterranean sheep breeds extends. This study shows that this practice existed seven millennia ago in Southern France, at an early stage of the major agricultural expansion of the Neolithic into the Western Mediterranean. To achieve this reproductive management regime, three prerequisites were required: (i) the ability of sheep to give birth in autumn, constituting early evidence for the genetic selection of specimens with prolonged reproductive fertility; (ii) intentional management of female and male interactions within the herd, which would have required good knowledge of the timing of the fertility cycle in ewes, and; (iii) adequate pasture resources to support lactation in the autumn, possibly favored by autumnal rains, substantiating previous paleoclimatological data for the existence of a Mediterranean-type precipitation regime at that time. Moreover, we also show that winter foddering of sheep occurred, using forest resources, and that this maintained good body weights for spring mating. These findings add pivotal information about shepherding practices and the socio-economic abilities of Early Neolithic communities, which allowed for the extension of their areas of influence from the Eastern Mediterranean area to the West during the Early Neolithic agricultural expansion in Europe.

OSL chronology of socio-ecological systems during the mid-Holocene in the eastern coast of the Sultanate of Oman (Arabian Peninsula)

The eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula is a key region to explore past climatic and environmental changes and their impact on the coastal ecosystems and Neolithic communities during the mid-Holocene (~8000–5000 years ago). Indeed, it is located at the frontier zone between dry and wet tropical systems, where the monsoon has reduced its activity and gradually shifted southward from the sixth millennium BC. Past human adaptation to new ecological conditions (more arid) and resources is reflected in the archaeological record, as a response to important climatic and eustatic fluctuations.In order to correlate human occupation during the Neolithic with the local climatic and palaeoenvironmental records, sediments were sampled at two archaeological sites and surrounding sabkhas, located in the Ja’alan region, on the eastern coast of the Sultanate of Oman. Optically and infrared stimulated luminescence dating were applied to quartz and feldspar grains extracted from sediments coming from both archaeological (Ruways 1 and Suwayh 1 shell middens) and palaeoenvironmental (current sabkhas) contexts in order to provide, together with radiocarbon dating, a chronology for this area. The results obtained allowed constraining human occupation during the Neolithic between 8340 ± 480 and 5390 ± 290 years (~6800–3100 years BC) at Ruways 1, and between 6180 ± 310 and 5480 ± 270 years BP (~4500–3200 years BC) at Suwayh 1. These occupations coincide with the development of a lagoon/mangrove, recorded in sediments from cores drilled under the current sabkha, whose last stage of development is dated to 5320 ± 590 (C2) and 5220 ± 570 (C1) years (3900–2600 years BC) at Khor al Jaramah.

DECISION-MAKING METHODOLOGY BETWEEN REVITALISATION AND REHABILITATION OF WORLD HERITAGE CITY CENTERS. CASE STUDY: THE ANCIENT CITY OF ALEPPO (SYRIA)

Abstract. The ancient city of Aleppo is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It may have been inhabited in the sixth millennium BC and it is a World Heritage City since 1986. Aleppo was severely damaged during the Syrian conflict. Therefore, the paper explores the adequate frameworks that are needed to tackle the emerging challenges of conservation in complicated situation after conflicts. As any conservation action starts with a decision, conservation standers adopted since the early twentieth century acknowledge the need for decisions to be informed through the best available scientific evidence. This paper proposes an analysis of the methodology used for the evaluation of damages caused by war in Aleppo and suggests decision-making tools DMT validated through a pilot project to guide post-conflict revitalization efforts. Within this framework, this paper analyzed the DMT in the rehabilitation of a Souk in the historic commercial center as the pilot project implementation. The project was done by 'Aga Khan Foundation' in partnership with 'Directorate General of antiquities and museums' in Syria and different national stakeholders. The success of the pilot project within the expected timeframe, materials, cost, and the souk regaining its function and vitality was recognized as a validation of the credibility and validity of the methodology adopted. The resulted data (plans, 3d scanning, etc.) are tools for decision-makers in the field of rehabilitation. The methodology can be replicated by all actors in the fields of conservation, whether in Aleppo or any other historical site.

The second season of excavations at Jebel Moya (south-central Sudan)

AbstractThis report presents the latest data from ongoing excavations at Jebel Moya, Sudan. This year saw the opening of five new trenches and continued excavation of an archaeologically rich trench. We have recovered four individual burials, a mud brick wall and a number of animal and archaeobotanical remains. The excavations also yielded a longer pottery sequence, showing clearly that the site was in use by at least the sixth millennium BC. This season confirms the long and complex history of Jebel Moya and provides the material for future studies on population health and subsistence. This season also saw an increase in community engagement and a more detailed study of the various historical trajectories that make up the biography of Jebel Moya.

Los Canes Mesolithic burials: archaeothanatology

Los Canes cave (Asturias, Northern Spain) is an outstanding site with traces of human occupation from the Solutrean to the Bronze Age. It consists of a very narrow cavity with three Late Mesolithic funerary structures, dating to the sixth millennium cal BC. The human remains found in these graves were studied in this paper from an archaeothanatological perspective. We considered the positions of the bodies and the causes of the displacement of several bones from their anatomical connections. This study discusses whether these inhumations correspond to primary or secondary burials. We conclude that they were primary graves, with traces of reuse in some cases. The dispersion of several bones may be explained by taphonomic factors and intensive utilization of the cave as a funerary space. Los Canes burials confirm the diversity found across the European Mesolithic funerary world and enhance our knowledge of the last hunter-gatherers in the Iberian Peninsula.

The Mystical Correspondence Between The Epoch Of The Hijra And The Biblical Year Of Creation Supported By A Tradition Mentioned By Abu Al-Fadl And Abd Al-Qadir Baduni

The connections between astronomy and timekeeping are longstanding. One approach to the teaching of Astronomy is it can serve as a unique platform to illustrate the advancement of science from ancient times along with the strong interrelation between science and religion. Here we chose to describe the influence of astronomical measurements that led to the determination of calendars with emphasis on the Islamic epoch: During the second century the Ethiopian Church placed the world’s year of creation (YOC) at exactly 5500 years before the Incarnation, thus expressing the view that it is related to the first day of the second half of the sixth millennium since their believed to be the YOC. The Ethiopian Church also believed that the astronomical visualization of the sky in the YOC which placed the vernal equinox and the newmoon in the same day, repeated itself in the year 5500. In a previous work we showed that “Astronomical coincidence" is a notion originated from Jews who believed that the YOC, Exodus, and the building of the Temple were mystically connected by similar rare newmoon events relative to the vernal equinox. Here we show that the founders of Islam believed in a similar mystical coincidence, explicitly that the 16th of July, 622 AD,- the epoch of the Islamic calendar-, is exactly the day in which the 6000th lunar year started after the biblical creation based on the number of solar years from creation as determined by Eusebius. We show that our astronomical calculations are in accordance with a tradition mentioned by Abu al-Fadl and Badauni.

Marking the sacral landscape of a north Arabian oasis: a sixth-millennium BC monumental stone platform and surrounding burials

AbstractPrehistoric stone structures are prominent and well-studied in the Levantine desert margins. In northern Arabia, however, such structures have received less attention. This article presents the results of investigations of a 35m-long stone platform, first constructed in the mid sixth millennium BC, overlooking the oasis of Dûmat al-Jandal in northern Saudi Arabia. Excavation of the platform has yielded bioarchaeological and cultural remains, along with evidence for several phases of construction and intermittent use down to the first millennium BC. Analysis of the platform and nearby tombs highlights the persistent funerary and ritual use of this area over millennia, illuminating nomadic pastoralist lifeways in prehistoric Arabia.

Paleolithic to Bronze Age Siberians Reveal Connections with First Americans and across Eurasia

Modern humans have inhabited the Lake Baikal region since the Upper Paleolithic, though the precise history of its peoples over this long time span is still largely unknown. Here, we report genome-wide data from 19Upper Paleolithic to Early Bronze Age individuals from this Siberian region. An Upper Paleolithic genome shows a direct link with the First Americans by sharing the admixed ancestry that gave rise to all non-Arctic Native Americans. We also demonstrate the formation of Early Neolithic and Bronze Age Baikal populations as the result of prolonged admixture throughout the eighth to sixth millennium BP. Moreover, we detect genetic interactions with western Eurasian steppe populations and reconstruct Yersinia pestis genomes from two Early Bronze Age individuals without western Eurasian ancestry. Overall, our study demonstrates the most deeply divergent connection between Upper Paleolithic Siberians and the First Americans and reveals human and pathogen mobility across Eurasia during the Bronze Age.

The adoption of cattle pastoralism in the Arabian Peninsula: A reappraisal

AbstractThe translocation of livestock into the Arabian Peninsula was underway by the sixth millennium BC. It remains unclear, however, whether nascent pastoralism in Arabia focused on specialised cattle herding, intensive caprine husbandry, or more extensive forms of sheep, goat and cattle management. Here, the role of Bos in Neolithic animal exploitation systems in the Arabian Peninsula is re‐examined in the context of fisher‐hunter‐gatherer groups inhabiting the coasts of the Arabian Gulf, agro‐pastoralist settlements located in the Jordanian highlands, and hunter‐herder communities in adjacent Jordanian steppe (badia). By the late sixth millennium BC, cattle from southern Mesopotamia were imported to the Arabian littoral via Ubaid exchange networks but remained a relatively unimportant part of local hunter‐gatherer‐herder subsistence for at least a millennium. New zooarchaeological evidence indicating cattle herding in the Jordanian highlands by the late eighth millennium BC suggests a southern transmission route originating out of Late Pre‐Pottery Neolithic B settlements and the subsequent spread of cattle along the Sarawat mountains into the interior or down the relatively arid Red Sea coast via land or boat. Cattle eventually played a central role in the symbolic and ritual lives of herders in southern Arabia, but the use of the term ‘cattle pastoralism’ to describe early Neolithic subsistence systems in the region is premature.

Neolithic sheep birth distribution: Results from Nova Nadezhda (sixth millennium BC, Bulgaria) and a reassessment of European data with a new modern reference set including upper and lower molars

During the course of the diffusion of Neolithic agro-pastoral societies across Europe, animal husbandry was adapted to local constraints and resources, involving changes in practices as well as in animal physiology. As a result, the timing of animal breeding was impacted, with consequences on the organization of agro-pastoral tasks and the seasonal availability of animal products. Past sheep birth seasonality can be investigated through the reconstruction of the seasonal cycle recorded in molars, based on the sequential analysis of stable oxygen isotope ratios (δ18O) in enamel. Modern sheep serve as comparative material to define the season of birth. In the present study, we provide new reference values for winter births in the sheep third molar (M3) using data from the modern Kemenez sheep herd. The dataset also includes paired upper and lower M3s in order to test the comparability of results obtained from both teeth. Results show a moderate shift in the isotopic record between upper and lower M3s. The consecutive difference in the assessment of the timing of birth is one month, on average. Additionally, we provide a new set of results for sheep from Nova Nadezhda (Bulgaria, early sixth millennium BC), combining upper and lower molars, in order to expand data relating to the earliest stages of the introduction of sheep to Europe. At Nova Nadezhda, sheep were born in late winter and spring, and the pattern of birth distribution does not indicate the control of sheep reproduction by separating males from females. When compared to previously published results at other Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in the Balkans, corrected for the shift between upper and lower M3s, no latitudinal and chronological trend is observed between the Southern Balkans, Northern Balkans and Hungarian plains over the early sixth to the second half of the fifth millennia BC. This apparent uniformity for the length (3–4 months) and timing of the birth period could be challenged in the future by enlarged datasets.

Extending the inter-Adriatic trade of bitumen beyond the fifth millennium BCE

Grotta dei Cervi (Apulia, Southern Italy) is the most important European figurative art site for its Neolithic red and brown paintings found in the various galleries of the cave. It was frequented with particular intensity between an advanced phase of the Early Neolithic (first half of the sixth millennium BCE) and continued up to the end of the Bronze Age (last centuries of the second millennium BCE). Among the more than thirty thousand finds, some ceramic shards had black residues on them. These residues were sampled so that molecular and isotopic investigations could be carried out. GC–MS-MS and EA–IRMS after fractionation of the samples allowed us to identify bitumen on some archaeological potsherd remains and to identify its geographic source by comparison with geological samples from Majella and Selenicë, two deposits located respectively in Italy and Albania and known to have been exploited since Neolithic times. All the bitumens from Porto Badisco correlate with each other and with the Selenicë geological samples. Isotopic fingerprints strongly support the biomolecular evidence and confirm the Albanian origin of the archaeological bitumen. The data presented herein provide the first evidence of export and trade of raw bitumen across the Adriatic Sea from Selenicë to Apulia during the Neolithic age thus bringing back to the fifth millennium BCE the transport of bitumen across the Adriatic Sea in the central Mediterranean area.

Millet agriculture dispersed from Northeast China to the Russian Far East: Integrating archaeology, genetics, and linguistics

Broomcorn and foxtail millets were being cultivated in the West Liao River basin in Northeast China by at least the sixth millennium BCE. However, when and how millet agriculture spread from there to the north and east remains poorly understood. Here, we trace the dispersal of millet agriculture from Northeast China to the Russian Far East and weigh demic against cultural diffusion as mechanisms for that dispersal. We compare two routes for the spread of millet into the Russian Far East discussed in previous research—an inland route across Manchuria, and a coastal/inland route initially following the Liaodong Peninsula and Yalu River—using an archaeological dataset including millet remains, pottery, stone tools, spindle whorls, jade and figurines. We then integrate the archaeological evidence with linguistic and genetic findings in an approach we term ‘triangulation’. We conclude that an expansion of agricultural societies in Northeast China during the Middle to Late Hongshan (40003000 BCE) coincided with the arrival of millet cultivation in eastern Heilongjiang and the Primorye province of the Russian Far East. Our findings support the inland, Manchuria route for the dispersal of millet to the Primorye and suggest that, as well as long-distance cultural exchange, demic diffusion was also involved. Our results are broadly compatible with the farming/language dispersal hypothesis and consistent with a link between the spread of millet farming and proto-Tungusic, the language ancestral to the contemporary Tungusic languages, in late Neolithic Northeast Asia.

A petrographic study of selected soils/sediments from sixth millennium BCE levels of the Tell Kurdu site: a contribution to the definition of Technosols

A petrographic study of selected soils/sediments from sixth millennium BCE levels of the Tell Kurdu site: a contribution to the definition of Technosols

Technological variability in foragers’ pottery productions at the early-mid Holocene site of Sphinx, western part of Jebel Sabaloka, Sudan

The site of Sphinx (SBK.W-60) is located about 3.5 km from the present Nile in the western part of Jebel Sabaloka, upstream of the Sixth Nile Cataract, in Sudan. This site uniquely includes Early Khartoum (Mesolithic) artifacts with no intrusive elements and has been dated from the ninth to the end of the sixth millennium cal BC. Excavations at Trench 7, in particular, brought to light a 1.2-m thick deposit with the quantitatively and qualitatively richest artifactual materials. Analysis and classification of the pottery assemblage from this site have been conducted with the aim of observing manufacturing techniques and examining the correlation between pottery production, cultural change and chronological variability. We undertook visual examinations of the manufacturing techniques combined with petrographic (optical microscopy, OM) and chemical analyses (instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis, iNAA), observations of manufacturing and decorative techniques, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS) on absorbed organic residues. The vertical distribution of the ceramic assemblage in Trench 7 reveals the existence of a relative sequence suggesting consistent technological variability throughout the site's occupation.

Fish resource exploitation in the southern Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula: A view from the traceological analysis of flaked stone tools (sixth-fourth mill. cal BCE)

In this paper, we provide new data on fish resource exploitation during the Mesolithic and Neolithic period on the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Evidence from four different sites is presented: Vale Marim I (end of the seventh/beginning of the sixth millennium cal BCE) and Vale Pincel I (2nd and 3rd quarters of the sixth millennium cal BCE), both located on the southwestern Portuguese coast, and La Esparragosa and SET Parralejos (fourth-third millennia cal BCE), both located on the southern Spanish coast. The analysis of the lithic assemblages by means of use-wear analysis provided evidence of fish-processing activities. The analysis of the archaeological tools has been based on a renewed experimental framework for fish-related use-wear traces. Despite data being still scarce and fragmentary, this study points out the necessity of a more integrating approach, including traceological analysis in the framework of a broader research on prehistoric fishing.

Rebirth in the afterlife: Neolithic pot burials from Khor Shambat, Sudan

ABSTRACTBurials in pots are one of the most intriguing and at the same time most widespread funeral practices in the prehistoric world. The oldest examples probably originate from the northern Levant where they occur in the Pottery Neolithic at the end of the seventh and in the early sixth millennia BC. The tradition was introduced into Egypt relatively late, most likely around 3500 BC, but appears a little earlier further south in central Sudan, where three instances have previously been reported from Late Neolithic sites in the Shendi Reach. This paper reports on an additional four pot burial graves of infants excavated in 2017 at Khor Shambat near Omdurman. Found next to a post-Meroitic grave, they date to the Early Neolithic and were accompanied by relatively abundant burial goods. The placement of parts of the same vessel in two different graves suggests a close chronological relationship between them, while vessel type and a radiocarbon date indicate an age of around 4400–4100 cal. BC. These burials may have been part of a protective ritual for the remains of very young (pre-initiated) individuals.