Sixth BC Research Articles

Urbanism in Archaic Rome: The Archaeological Evidence

The ancient literary tradition, together with piecemeal archaeological evidence, has conventionally served as a basis for investigating the origin of the city of Rome. This study aims to counterbalance earlier studies by using archaeological evidence as the main data of the examination, particularly new archaeological discoveries and scientific studies. The archaeological record from early Rome shows that urbanization was a gradual process taking place over several centuries. However, from the wide range of archaeological material studied in this article, it is evident that an intense wave of urbanization emerged in Rome in the archaic period. Certain features conventionally attributed to cities, such as population growth, monumental architecture, urban planning, networks, public inscriptions, and craft specialization, are visible in the archaeological material from the sixth and early fifth centuries bc.

A NEW INTERACTIVE PARADIGM FOR THE STUDY OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

The study of the interaction among ancient civilizations with a special focus on the Archaic period has developed three paradigms, including a comparative approach, a regional approach that regards the Mediterranean as a Koine, and a historical approach based on the Networks theory. This article addresses the theoretical superiorities of the “Mediterranean Koine”. Although it has been demonstrated differently in various historians’ works, the pattern of “Mediterranean Koine” can be categorized into four common features: the cultural exchanges based on commercial activities, the integrated “region” formed through communication, the balanced relationship between individuality and commonality, and the high level of economic and cultural connections determined by the unique ecological environment. The cultural exchanges based on commercial activities are the fundamental character of the “Mediterranean Koine” from the eighth to sixth century BC. Thanks to modern archaeology, these commercial activities and the cultural exchanges have been largely reconstructed. Al Mina is a perfect example of getting a fundamental understanding of the “Mediterranean Koine”. For better utilizing the “Mediterranean Koine” in research we should also direct attention into the differences among civilizations, such as their various scopes of time and space, different social structures, and the uniqueness of particular ecologies.

Remains of Birds from the Northwest Black Sea Ancient Settlements

ABSTRACT The article presents the results of the identification of 1051 bird remains from the ancient layers of the 12 settlements from the Northern Black Sea coast. Zooarchaeological finds described in the work date to the sixth century BC through the fourth century AD. The data allowed researchers to specify features of bird exploitation by the inhabitants of the region. In particular, we established that, hunted birds dominated over domestic species in the diet of inhabitants of large settlements. However, previous publications on the results of mammalian studies suggested that hunting did not play a significant role, but was rather an entertainment. We also found that the inhabitants of small settlements consumed more poultry than wild species of birds. The earlier reports about the discovery of pheasant's remains in the ancient layers of the Northern Black Sea Coast were refuted. The report presents the bone of the chicken with osteopetrosis, which appears as the most eastern evidence of the disease in the archaeological records in Europe. Some changes were discovered in the avifauna. The primary changes took place during the Hellenistic time (350–200 BC), when the region experienced a reduction in species diversity. We assume that the changes in fauna are a consequence of the climatic shifts which took place in the Roman Warm Period.

Javier Álvarez-Mon. The Monumental Reliefs of the Elamite Highlands. A Complete Inventory and Analysis (from the Seventeenth to the Sixth Century BC)

A product of years of research, both on and off-site, this volume provides a much-needed documentation of a corpus of eighteen monumental rock reliefs carved between the seventeenth and sixth centuries BC in Elamite highland open-air sanctuaries in the Izeh valley and its surrounds (Xong-e Azdhar, Shah Savar, Shekaft-e Salman, Kul-e Farah, Qal-e Tul), the Mamasani river district (Kurangun), and the Marvdasht plain (Naqsh-e Rustam). Following introductory remarks on the settings of the relief...

Discovery of carbon nanotubes in sixth century BC potteries from Keeladi, India

Unique black coatings were observed in the inner wall of pottery shreds excavated from Keeladi, Tamilnadu, India. Raman spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy were used to understand the nature of the coating. The analysis revealed the presence of single, multi-walled carbon nanotubes and layered sheets in the coating. The average diameter of single-walled carbon nanotube found to be about 0.6 ± 0.05 nm. This is the lowest among the single-walled carbon nanotubes reported from artefacts so far and close to the theoretically predicted value (0.4 nm). These nanomaterials were coated in the pottery’s that date backs to sixth century BC, and still retain its stability and adhesion. The findings of nano materials in the pre-historic artifacts, its significance and impact are discussed in this article.

Investigating Plant Micro-Remains Embedded in Dental Calculus of the Phoenician Inhabitants of Motya (Sicily, Italy).

Plant records reveal remarkable evidence about past environments and human cultures. Exploiting dental calculus analysis and using a combined approach of microscopy and gas chromatography mass spectrometry, our research outlines dietary ecology and phytomedicinal practices of the ancient community of Motya (Sicily, eight to sixth century BC), one of the most important Phoenician settlements in the Mediterranean basin. Micro-remains suggest use or consumption of Triticeae cereals, and animal-derived sources (e.g., milk and aquatic birds). Markers of grape (or wine), herbs, and rhizomes, endemic of Mediterranean latitudes and the East, provide insight into the subsistence of this colony, in terms of foodstuffs and phytotherapeutic products. The application of resins and wood of Gymnosperms for social and cultural purposes is hypothesized through the identification of Pinaceae secondary metabolites and pollen grains. The information hidden in dental calculus discloses the strong human-plant interaction in Motya’s Phoenician community, in terms of cultural traditions and land use.

Proto-Dravidian Languages in Indus Valley Civilization: An Ultraconserved Tooth-word Reveals Deep Linguistic Ancestry, Supports Genetics

Ever since the discovery of Indus valley civilization, scholars have debated the linguistic identities of its people. This study analyzes numerous archaeological, linguistic, archaeogenetic and historical evidences to claim that the words used for elephant (like, ‘pīri’, ‘pīru’) in Bronze Age Mesopotamia, the elephant-word used in the Hurrian part of an Amarna letter of ca. 1400 BC, and the ivory-word (‘pirus’) recorded in certain sixth century BC Old Persian documents, were all originally borrowed from ‘pīlu’, a Proto-Dravidian elephant-word, which was prevalent in the Indus valley civilization, and was etymologically related to the Proto-Dravidian tooth-word ‘*pal’ and its alternate forms (‘*pīl’/‘*piḷ’/‘*pel’). This paper argues that there is sufficient morphophonemic evidence of an ancient Dravidian ‘*piḷ’/‘*pīl’-based root, which meant ‘splitting/crushing’, and was semantically related to the meanings ‘tooth/tusk’. This paper further observes that ‘pīlu’ is among the most ancient and common phytonyms of the toothbrush tree Salvadora persica, which is a characteristic flora of Indus valley, and whose roots and twigs have been widely used as toothbrush in IVC regions since antiquity. This study claims that this phytonym ‘pīlu’ had also originated from the same Proto-Dravidian tooth-word, and argues that since IVC people had named their toothbrush trees and tuskers (elephants) using a Proto-Dravidian tooth-word, and since these names were widely used across IVC regions, a significant population of Indus valley civilization must have used that Proto-Dravidian tooth-word in their daily communication. Since ‘tooth’ belongs to the core non-borrowable ultraconserved vocabulary of a speech community, its corollary is that a significant population of IVC spoke certain ancestral Dravidian languages. Important insights from recent archaeogenetic studies regarding possible migration of Proto-Dravidian speakers from Indus valley to South India also corroborate the findings of this paper.

Protohistoric pastoral landscape in northern Istria revealed by airborne LiDAR: hill forts, enclosures and long linear walls in the Mali Kras plateau (southwestern Slovenia)

This paper presents the results of an international research aimed at investigating the ancient landscape of the Mali Kras plateau, a sector of northern Istria (southwestern Slovenia). The remains of two main protohistoric hill forts, Mali Kras and Socerb, and a few minor sites were already reported from this area. A cemetery, associated with Socerb hill fort, was in use between the sixth century BC and the first century AD. Airborne LiDAR remote sensing of Mali Kras plateau has allowed to identify several unknown archaeological features, ranging from approximately square features (30 × 30 m) to larger enclosures with different shapes, very long linear features and stone mounds. The elaboration and digitization of high-definition remote sensing data compared with historical cartography, field surveys, targeted small-scale excavations and thermoluminescence dating have been performed in order to decode the complex archaeological palimpsest. The square structures can be attributed to Middle-Recent Bronze Age on the basis of pottery finds. These structures are located close to natural passages from the plateau to the gulf of Trieste, in areas with low visibility and scarcity of soil, which were traditionally used for grazing activities. The other identified enclosures, some of them sharing a similar chronology, were also probably used for pastoral activities but for other purposes since their shape and size are different. Two main long drystone walls define the southeastern sector of Mali Kras plateau in correspondence of the most accessible entrance to the area. The preliminary data and comparisons with similar structures suggest these walls could correspond to protohistoric linear boundaries built to delimit grazing or agricultural areas under direct control of the nearby settlements. The enclosures identified at Mali Kras plateau, most probably connected to herding activities, and perhaps the long linear walls too, could reflect the development of new husbandry practices in the Middle-Recent Bronze Age in the karst areas of the north Adriatic hinterland, such as observed in the alpine territory.

Planning Punic cities: geophysical prospection and the built environment at Motya, Sicily

The urban plan of ancient Motya on the Isola di San Pantaleo on the west coast of Sicily and its relationship to developments in Phoenician and Punic societies have been investigated since the early 1960s. Data from geophysical surveys in the north-eastern quadrant of Motya show the regular organisation of urbaninsulaeframed by two broad roads. These results, combined with data from previous nearby excavations, improve the modelling of Motya's layout, and contribute to the wider discussion of Phoenician/Punic and broader Mediterranean urban traditions between the sixth and fourth centuries BC.

From Heroes to Zeroes: the Pythagorean Refugees of the 6th and 5th

In the sixth and fifth centuries BC, Pythagorean philosophers managed to hold power in several cities of southern Italy. Subsequently, they were victims of attacks from political opponents, which killed most of them. The surviving Pythagoreans had to seek asylum elsewhere, becoming political refugees. There are several different ancient traditions and modern theories about the reasons of the violent opposition who turned the powerful Pythagoreans in exiles. However, in this paper it is argued that in, any case, the root cause of this opposition is the elitist attitude that marked Pythagorean philosophy, way of life and politics.

Traditions and innovations: versatility of copper and tin bronze making recipes in Iron Age Emporion (L\u2019Escala, Spain)

Established around 575 BC, Emporion was a Greek colonial enclave in north-east Iberia and hence constitutes a good context to study Mediterranean innovations and their adaptation with indigenous technologies. Here, we present an analytical study of the archaeometallurgical assemblage from a workshop context dated to the first occupational moment of Emporion’s Neapolis (second half of the sixth century BC), including slag and technical ceramics. We aimed at reverse engineering the copper and tin bronze metallurgical technologies at the site. The results allow the identification of copper smelting and melting, and a variety of bronze alloying techniques, together with iron smelting and forging. The use of Fe-rich copper ores with BaO, ZnO and PbO impurities is consistent with the exploitation of local sources, preceding the diversification of raw materials documented for later phases. The co-occurrence of co-smelting, cementation and co-melting as bronze making technologies is discussed with reference to parameters of efficiency and cost-effectiveness and contextualised in the broader colonial interaction, providing pointers for future comparative work and discussion. The early use of metallic tin for bronze production at the site supports a Mediterranean origin for this innovation in Iberia.

Amphiaraos, the Healer and Protector of Attika

Amphiaraos was an important and popular healing hero/god in Athens from the end of the fifth century BC, however, not much has been studied. This paper investigates the figure in various ways by examining different sources. In the sixth century BC and in to the fifth, Amphiaraos was an Argive warrior hero that came into war against Thebes. He then seems to have acquired a sanctuary in the Theban territory being a mantic hero. In the end of the fifth century BC, however, he is said to have swallowed up by the earth and sprang up again in a spring at Oropos. Between 420-414 BC, his sanctuary was set up by the Athenians at Oropos. But this time, he was venerated as a healing hero. In 420 BC, Asklepios was introduced to Athens in order to cure plague that went around from 430s BC. It seems that the Athenians benchmarked Asklepios to promote one more healing hero/god at their north eastern border. When Oropos was taken by their enemies, a substitute Amphiareion was established in Rhamnous, a deme close to Oropos. The Athenians also promoted a patriotic hero through the words of Euripides. Illustrated as having gone through the same process of sacrifice - death - commemoration, Amphiaraos was put in parallel with the Athenian mythical king Erechtheus. Through this parallel, Amphiaraos became a political figure that protected Athens from outside threats. Healing was, by the ancient Athenians, understood in a wide spectrum and was considered as a way to protect the polis.

Daniel: An Introduction and Commentary

Daniel: An Introduction and Commentary

Exine morphometric analysis as a new tool for Citrus species identification: a case study from Oplontis (Vesuvius area, Italy)

In the Mediterranean area, the occurrence of citrus plants in ancient times is clearly attested in Sardinia and along the southern Tyrrhenian coasts through the presence of pollen grains and organic residues dating back to the sixth century bc. The presence of Citrus pollen was also detected in soil sediments from Pompeii (ad 79), in marine sediments from the ancient harbour of Naples (first century ad), in Rome (27 bc–ad 14) as well as in a garden soil at the Villa di Poppea in Oplontis (first century bc). The first citrus tree to be identified was citron (Citrus medica L.), but even if the presence of other citrus species was supposed, identification was limited by the difficulty of discriminating the exine characteristics through optical microscopy. Exine micromorphology of eight citrus species, including primitive to cultivated, was studied by SEM and optical microscope observations. By means of the image analysis method, the morphometry of lumina and brochi was evaluated. Results indicate that the size of lumina and brochi increases from primitive, wild to cultivated citrus up to lemon. In addition, there is an overall correspondence between brochi dimension and hybridization history. The morphometric analysis on modern pollen material and comparison with the fossil grains found at Oplontis allowed attesting for the first time the presence of C. limon and C. reticulata in the Roman Age. The statistical methods used for the analysis of exine ornamentations proved to be a useful tool for interpreting the complex citrus hybridization history and for shedding light on the scenario of citrus fruits introduction in the Roman period.

Separating silver sources of Archaic Athenian coinage by comprehensive compositional analyses

This article demonstrates that distinct and coherent silver sources can be discriminated from surface compositional analyses. In the first large-scale study of Archaic (pre-479 BC) Athenian silver coins in museum collections around the world, we analysed 788 coins by Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry with a mathematical correction to provide a reliable composition for key diagnostic elements. Principal Component Analysis reveals compositional patterns including at least one copper-lead-gold (Cu, Pb, Au) triplet with strong clustering of data. The pattern for bismuth (Bi) was similar to, but not as clear as Pb. Considering elemental compositions in combination with a die study and isotopic analyses in the literature, we reveal when Lavrion was the metal source from which Wappenmünzen and Owl coinage types were struck, providing important new understanding about Athenian history in the pivotal period of transition from tyranny to democracy in the late sixth century BC. Beyond this specific example, we contend that XRF spectrometry could have wider application in studies of ancient silver, not least for a simplified triage protocol to help determine which silver artefacts should be subjected to slower, more costly and invasive trace elemental and isotopic analyses.

A proto-Normal Star Almanac dating to the reign of Artaxerxes III: BM 65156

Babylonian methods for predicting planetary phenomena using the so-called goal-year periods are well known. Texts known as Goal-Year Texts contain collections of the observational data needed to make predictions for a given year. The predictions were then recorded in Normal Star Almanacs and Almanacs. Large numbers of Goal-Year Texts, Normal Star Almanacs and Almanacs are attested from the early third century BC onward. A small number of texts dating from before the third century present procedures for using the goal-year periods to predict planetary phenomena. In addition, two texts, one dating to the late sixth century BC and the other to the late fifth century BC, contain planetary data which was probably predicted using these methods. In this article, I discuss a further example of a tablet dating from before the third century BC which contains planetary data predicted using the goal-year periods. I show that the planetary phenomena contained in this tablet can be dated to the twelfth year of the reign of Artaxerxes III (347/6 BC) and that they were predicted using goal-year periods without the application of the kind of corrections which were used in the third century BC texts in order to produce more accurate predictions.

PLATO AND ARISTOPHANES ON (WANT OF) EDUCATION: SHAME AND EROS IN THEGORGIASAND IN THECLOUDS

Plato'sGorgiasmight as well have been namedOn Shame. The word appears sixty-nine times in the course of the dialogue with a lion's share of references to shame being made by Socrates’ character. Callicles comes in second in his use of the term. Cairns notes that in the corpus of the lyric poet Theognis of Megara (sixth century BC) we have ‘the first instance of the nounaischunē.’ Cairns goes on to comment on Theognis’ use of αἰσχύνη and says that ‘[h]ere it appears in the objective sense, but later it will also be found in a subjective sense, as the reaction to or mental picture of disgrace and so as equivalent ofaidōs.’ Although it is important to differentiate αἰσχύνη and αἰδώς, the terms, as Cairns suggests, are capable of expressing interchangeable meanings. Hence, in our comparative study of shame in theGorgiasand in theClouds, we pay close attention to and examine the context in which a given term appears. The central role that shame plays in theGorgiasis the subject matter of analyses by Race, Bensen Cain, McKim, and Dodds. Race is confident that ‘of all the motifs running through the work, the most insistent is that of shame, for the word aischyne (along with verbal forms of aischynomai and the adjective aischros) occurs over 75 times.’ In line with the view that shame is central in theGorgias, we offer a further contribution, which focuses on the affinity between the treatment of shame in that dialogue and in Aristophanes’Clouds. We argue that either the ostensible subject of theGorgias, which is usually identified as rhetoric, is not the dialogue's true concern or the explicit subject matter cannot be understood without its accompanying element, which is shame. To support this thesis, we undertake a comparative analysis of the thematic, heuristic, and conceptual use of shame in theGorgiasin view of Aristophanes’ play. We argue that the characters in theCloudsportray the same perennial attitudes to life as do the interlocutors in theGorgiasand, what is more, the characters in both works evoke with more than incidental clarity certain historical figures (Alcibiades and Pericles). Thus, both works, as we claim, are commenting on and, even though theCloudsis a comedy, serve as the ground for our philosophical reflection on the political, educational, and cultural ideals of ancient Greece. Moreover, theCloudsmakes light of, instead of endorsing, such distinctions as shameful/laudable, natural/conventional, old/new, education/didacticism, and moral/prudish. We draw on the humor of theClouds, which allows us to withhold immediate judgment about these dichotomies in order to then examine these same notions which are problematized in theGorgias.

IDEOLOGICAL READINGS THROUGH THE MEDICAL RECORDS: ILLNESSES IN THE NEO-BABYLONIAN CHRONICLES AND BABYLONIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

<div><!--block-->In this study, we will focus on the illnesses and disabilities mentioned in the Neo-Babylonian Chronicles Series (ABC 1-7 and MC 16-17, 21-26) which were compiled in the second half of the first millennium BC. The information in these records will be evaluated with regards to medical history in the first millennium BC. Particular attention will be given to the details concerning illnesses with fatal consequences for Mesopotamian and Elamite kings who had ruled before the time that the texts were compiled. It is very important to think about why the medical problems in question are included in some of the chronicles since the chronicles speak of accounts of noteworthy political and military events in general. Including information about the medical disorders concerning kings, the chronicles contents can contribute to evaluations of the relationship between the political, religious and traditional aspects of Babylonian historiography. The modern assumption, that Neo-Babylonian and certain other chronicles are “models of historical probity” and impartial texts sharing a historical critique on the records of the kings’ illnesses, will be discussed. This study is related to the historical period between the middle of the third millenium and the end of the sixth century BC. In addition, other chronicles such as the Weidner Chronicle and the Chronicle of Early Kings concerning this period will be referenced considerably as well. Cite this article as: Kağnıcı, Gökhan, “Tıbbi Bilginin İdeolojik Kullanımı Üzerine Okumalar: Yeni Babil Kroniklerinde Hastalıklar ve Babil Tarih Yazıcılığı”, Turk J Hist sayı 69 (2019), s.1-36.</div>

Previously Unidentified Tuff in the Archaic Temple Podium at Sant'Omobono, Rome and its Broader Implications

This study reports on the discovery that the podium of the archaic temple in the Forum Boarium of Rome was built with a previously unknown tuff, of non-local origin. On the basis of detailed comparative petrographic and geochemical tests, it has been established that the blocks employed to build the earliest temple so far discovered in Rome belonged to a distinctive facies of tufo lionato that had never been characterized before, in contrast to what was reported by previous excavators. The blocks must have come from a quarry in the Anio River Valley, several kilometers from the construction site, making the Sant'Omobono temple the earliest known Roman building that extensively employed imported materials. The metrology of the blocks is also unique. This particular volcanic stone was probably chosen for its much greater resistance to weathering compared to the local tuffs, a trait that was essential in the flood-prone location, not far from the Tiber riverbank, where the temple was situated. The labor-intensive sourcing may also explain the dainty size of the temple podium in comparison to other sixth-century bc temples in the region. The choice made by the builders indicates far greater sophistication and technical awareness than they have generally been credited with. The new discovery is placed in the context of the quickly accumulating archaeological record of sixth-century bc Rome, which suggests a dramatic increase in the number and scale of monumental projects in the expanding city.

The efficiency of nanolime and dibasic ammonium phosphate in the consolidation of beige limestone from the Pasargadae World Heritage Site

The limestone used at the Pasargadae World Heritage Site in Iran, an outstanding open-air architectural heritage site dating from the Achaemenid period (sixth century BC), has suffered weathering due to interaction with the environment. It was built out of beige limestone that today shows scaling and pitting decay patterns. Two inorganic consolidating products that are very promising: nanolime and dibasic ammonium phosphate (DAP) were considered for the consolidation of the limestone. Consolidation treatments were conducted on samples from a quarry and applied using a paintbrush with 50% nanolime dispersion in isopropyl alcohol and 1.0 M DAP water solution. Superficial consolidation was evaluated by means of a micro-drilling resistance test, and color changes were assessed by spectrophotometry. The microstructure of the treated samples was observed using FE-SEM. The efficacy of the two consolidation treatments was also assessed by testing their hydric properties and durability (hydric tests, freeze-thaw, and salt crystallization cycles). The compactness in the altered samples was monitored by measuring the ultrasound propagation velocity. We found that the superficial resistance increased in a similar way with both treatments. However, spectrophotometry revealed a yellowish color in the samples treated with DAP. During FE-SEM observations, some diffused microcracks were detected on the surface of DAP treatment. When subjected to accelerated aging tests, both treatments managed to postpone the formation of the first microcrack during the freeze-thaw test and both showed outstanding stability during salt crystallization cycles. In conclusion, the nanolime product seems to be more compatible with beige limestone because it does not affect its aesthetic qualities (color, lightness, and a homogeneous layer formed on the surface of the stone). Moreover, previous research found that lime has a low propensity for biological growth. This supports its use as a consolidating product for the stone used in open-air archeological sites that are prone to microbial growth, such as the beige stone used in the Pasargadae WHS.