Situational Motivation Research Articles

The rise of publics in sociopolitical issues: integrating the social identity approach into the situational theory of problem solving

PurposeDiverse organizations, including corporations, increasingly advocate for sociopolitical issues to engage their publics. These issues often revolve around the interests, identities and dynamics of specific social groups, necessitating a deeper examination of publics’ social identities. Thus, this study aims to explore how individuals’ social identities, such as group memberships and ingroup identification, drive individuals to become active publics.Design/methodology/approachDrawing from the social identity approach and the situational theory of problem solving (STOPS), an online survey of 965 participants from two racial groups was conducted to examine the impacts of social group memberships and ingroup identification on problem recognition, involvement recognition, constraint recognition, referent criterion, situational motivation and attitude toward race relations and the Black Lives Matter movement.FindingsThe results of multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling analyses revealed that social group membership and ingroup identification are crucial in shaping publics’ situational perceptions of sociopolitical issues. The effects of ingroup identification on situational, motivational and attitudinal perceptions significantly differed between African American and White American groups, highlighting the importance of considering group dynamics.Originality/valueThis study underscores the value of integrating the social identity approach into public relations and corporate communication research to elucidate diverse publics’ socio-psychological processes in response to sociopolitical issues. The findings equip practitioners with deeper insights into social group dynamics, allowing them to adapt their communication efforts to better engage and mobilize different publics, ultimately enhancing the impact of their advocacy efforts.

Navigating vaccine misinformation: a study on users’ motivations, active communicative action and anti-misinformation behavior via chatbots

PurposeThe global prevalence of vaccine misinformation has underscored the crucial necessity to combat false information and explore innovative solutions like chatbots. These artificial intelligence (AI)-powered tools play a pivotal role in disseminating accurate information and mitigating the adverse effects of misinformation. This study aimed to investigate what factors motivated users to combat vaccine misinformation using chatbot tools, and their active communication actions and anti-misinformation behaviors.Design/methodology/approachResearchers surveyed 612 chatbot users in the United States and utilized structural equation modeling for data analysis.FindingsThe findings of this study revealed that both situational and gratification motivations of chatbot users significantly contributed to three essential types of communicative actions: information-seeking, forwarding and forfending. Meanwhile, the data demonstrated that except for information forfending, both information-seeking and forwarding communicative actions could enhance user engagement with anti-misinformation behavior.Originality/valueThe originality of this study lies in its integration of two key motivational frameworks – gratification and situational motivations – within the context of AI-driven tools like chatbots, particularly in combating misinformation. While previous research has explored the use of chatbots or the role of situational motivations in communication separately, this study uniquely combines these concepts to enhance the situational theory of problem-solving (STOPS) model and uses and gratifications (U&G) theory. Additionally, the practical implications for chatbot design and communication strategies targeted at misinformation are a significant contribution, demonstrating how motivation-driven interactions can be used to improve user engagement and public health outcomes.

A Pilot Case-Study of Using Instructional and Demonstration Videos as a Supplementary Tool for Learning in an Exercise Science Course at a Minority-Serving Institution

Lecture recording is a practice several programs and courses (virtual and face-to-face) are employed to allow for students to have access to live self-paced lectures, to provide an additional study tool, and at times, recordings are provided as a source of engagement. Universal software programs such as Echo 360 allow instructors to record and monitor student engagement with video content such as view time. Research has explored student use of lecture recordings; however, this project explores how accessing the videos influenced the student aside from gaining content knowledge. Instructional and demonstration videos were included as supplemental materials within content-based modules on the learning management platform at the institution. Seventeen students were enrolled in the upper-level undergraduate exercise science course and had immediate access to the recordings. Situational motivation was analyzed and reported. On average, at mid-term and the final point in the semester, students were extrinsically motivated when choosing to watch the recording(s), however, positive shifts towards intrinsic motivation were noticed along the continuum of motivation. The significance of the change in motivation was not explored. This pilot case study recommends the addition of active assignments with supplementary materials such as relevant video instructions and demonstrations to guide students in understanding and applying hands-on concepts in upper-level exercise science programming courses to mentally prepare students for undergraduate internships in the field.

Self-assessment and learning motivation in emergency point-of-care ultrasound: an online pilot investigation in German physicians

IntroductionLearning motivation is essential to obtain and maintain ultrasound competencies in emergency medicine. One’s competencies herein and the need for ongoing training are best evaluated by self-assessment. This may be flawed by overconfidence effects - the belief to be better than others or better than tests reveal. This study aims to clarify the underinvestigated interaction of learning motivation and self-assessment in emergency point-of-care-ultrasound (POCUS).MethodsIn this cross-sectional multicenter project, physicians assessed their own and others’ competence and learning motivation using the Situational Motivation Scale comprising intrinsic motivation, external and identified regulation, and amotivation. In addition, we presented eight ultrasound loops of different pathologies to emergency physicians of various specialties.ResultsOverall, the motivation to learn was high, while self-assessment showed no significant overconfidence in POCUS. The rate of correct diagnoses based on the loops was relatively low. As a result, we did not detect overconfidence effects in participants who completed questions (n = 86) and tests (n = 56). Overplacing oneself above peers negatively correlated with intrinsic learning motivation and identified regulation and positively correlated to amotivation. Further analyses indicated that learning motivation was associated with the interactions of the physicians’ risk perception, speciality, and self-assessment.DiscussionThe absence of overconfidence effects, the complexity of learning motivation and their interaction show that prior findings in other contexts may not be easily transferable to POCUS and could be highly context-sensitive. In conclusion, this study highlights high levels of learning motivation but relatively low diagnostic accuracy in POCUS, which suggests the need for ongoing education and assessment. Ensuring that physicians continue to receive objective feedback and opportunities to refine their skills is critical for maintaining high standards of care. Despite the small sample size and other limitations of the study, the results primarily served to generate hypotheses for future research on emergency ultrasound education.

Flipped classroom approach for gymnastics learning in physical education: A quasi-experimental study

The flipped classroom (FC), a blended learning approach where students engage with lesson content remotely before in-person class, is increasingly recommended in different educational settings. Advancing its integration within genuine physical education (PE) settings, this research explores the effects of an innovative FC model on the learning experiences of secondary school students in gymnastics. This study presents data from 42 students, aged 17.42 ± 0.80 years, divided quasi-randomly between 19 in the flipped classroom (FC) group and 23 in the traditional approach (TA) group. Data were collected before and after a six-week intervention, assessing motor learning through gymnastics floor routines, knowledge acquisition in gymnastics via a custom-designed written test, and both autonomous (AMI) and controlled motivation indexes (CMI) through the “Situational Motivation Scale” (SIMS). During the intervention, physical engagement was quantified through direct observation as the number of gymnastics skill repetitions per session. Results showed that the FC group significantly outperformed the TA group in motor learning and knowledge acquisition, with p < 0.001. The FC group also exhibited a significant increase in AMI ( p < 0.001) and a decrease in CMI ( p < 0.01), opposite to the TA group. With mean repetitions ranging from 41 to 47.67 compared to TA group's 21.17 to 25.83, the FC model significantly enhanced phsycial engagement in the FC group ( p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). This research underscores the efficacy of the suggested FC model in boosting motor, cognitive, and affective outcomes in gymnastics. Recommendations for optimal implementation are discussed.

Stress at Work and Employee Motivation

Today’s work environment poses many challenges for organisations in terms of stress management and motivation. The main objective of this research is to determine the relationship between workplace stress and employee motivation levels. The research investigation was conducted on the example of employees of a local government institution (city hall) in north-eastern Poland, exploring their experiences of occupational stress (stress) and declared motivation. An online survey questionnaire was used in the study. The research sample consisted of 90 people (100% of staff). The main finding of the research is that few people do not experience stress in the workplace. This is an important observation that highlights the prevalence of this phenomenon. Of course, it is not always at a dysfunctional level. However, it should be noted that one in five employees is severely affected by it. Respondents showed a moderate level of their professional motivation. The majority of staff are focused on their job duties and recognise their commitment, but work is not their passion. A negative correlation was found between stress levels and professional motivation. There is also variation in the way stress affects motivation. Depending on employees’ gender, age, income and occupational position, the relationship is clearly different. Men show a greater susceptibility to decreased motivation in stressful situations compared to women. In addition, those in managerial positions show a weaker correlation between stress and motivation, i.e. their motivation is not as strongly linked to stress as for employees in lower positions. Similarly, the relationship is for older versus younger people and higher earners versus lower earners.

The motivational impact of sport education model on daily physical activity levels among university students: a mediation analysis

This study investigates the effects of the sport education model on physical literacy and its subsequent impact on daily physical activity levels among university students. Through mediation analysis, this study seeks to uncover the role of situational motivation in these effects. The participants in this study consist of 188 university students (male n = 132, female n = 70; mean age: 18.53 years) who were exposed to an 8-class, 10-lesson season as part of their physical education curriculum. Self-report measures were collected at baseline (1st lesson), post-intervention (10th lesson), and follow-up phases (5 weeks after). The results reveal significant mediation effects at the post-intervention (β = 0.201, t = 3.576, p < .001) and follow-up (β = 0.187, t = 3.069, p < .01) phases. Additionally, significant direct effects of physical literacy on physical activity metabolic minutes were found in the post-intervention phase (β = 0.293, t = 1.807, p < .05). Gender differences were also observed in the multigroup analysis. These findings demonstrated the motivation mediates the impact of the sport education model on promoting physical activity and highlight the multidimensional nature of physical literacy. Future research is recommended to explore the application of this pedagogical model in different educational contexts and populations, utilising robust analytical methods.

Perfectionism and Adolescent Athletes' Burnout: The Serial Mediation of Motivation and Coping Style.

Preventing and reducing adolescent athletes' risk of burnout can help promote long-term sports participation, improve performance, and maintain psychological well-being. The present study examined the associations between perfectionism and burnout among Chinese adolescent athletes and the mediating role of motivation and coping styles. A total of 243 Chinese adolescent athletes (78% boys; Mage = 17.8; SD = 2.62) completed the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale for China, the Situational Motivation Scale, the Coping Scale for Chinese Athletes, and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire to assess perfectionism (strivings and concerns), coping styles (problem-focused and emotion-focused), motivation (intrinsic and amotivation), and burnout. Path analyses indicated that intrinsic motivation and coping styles (problem-focused and emotion-focused) serially mediated the relationship between perfectionistic strivings and burnout. Problem-focused coping mediated the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and burnout. These findings contribute to a model of the effect of perfectionism on adolescent athletes' burnout, provide support for the self-determination theory, and suggest a feasible approach for mitigating burnout in this group.

Predicting Health Misperceptions: The Role of eHealth Literacy and Situational Perceptions

ABSTRACT This study sought to understand how health misperceptions develop among individuals after exposure to misinformation messages, and how eHealth literacy and situational motivation in problem solving are associated with the negative effects of misinformation exposure. We also sought to understand the differentiated effects of misinformation exposure on the four misinformation-susceptible publics. Results from two studies revealed that situational motivation was positively associated with the formation of misperceptions after misinformation exposure as well as individuals’ likelihood of amplifying the misinformation message. However, eHealth literacy does not reduce misperceptions, as had been hypothesized. In fact, eHealth literacy was not significantly associated with misperceptions or with misinformation amplification likelihood. Results also provide support for the typology of misinformation-susceptible publics as misinformation-amplifying publics were the most susceptible to misinformation messages.

Predictors of post-exercise affect: A self-determination theory approach considering physical, social, and psychological factors.

Studies have shown increases in affect after acute exercise. However, the specific aspects of an exercise experience that predict or contribute to post-exercise affect remain relatively unknown. This study aimed to determine which physical (i.e., duration and intensity), contextual (i.e., social context and time of day), and psychological factors (i.e., motivation and need satisfaction) predicted post-exercise affect. In 2021, 296 gym users self-reported affect before and immediately after exercising at a gym facility. Participants also reported situational motivation towards exercise, need satisfaction (i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness), who they exercised with (social interaction), and the duration and perceived intensity of their exercise session. We first conducted a paired samples t-test to identify whether affect significantly increased from before to after exercise, and then a hierarchical regression model to determine which factors predicted post-exercise affect. Affect significantly increased from before to after exercise (t[291] = 8.116, p < .001). Autonomous motivation (β = .23, p = <.001), autonomy satisfaction (β = .15, p = <.05), and relatedness satisfaction (β = .19, p = <.01) significantly predicted post-exercise affect, whereas duration, perceived intensity, social interaction, and time of day did not. People should be encouraged to engage in activities that satisfy their need for autonomy and relatedness during leisure-time (i.e., not during the workday). SO WHAT?: This approach to physical activity promotion may lead to better affective outcomes and increased adherence compared to focusing on how long, how intense, or with whom people exercise.

The motivation of reading of vocational-technical (VT) schoolchildren

The investigation of reading motivation is important in studying, regulating, and prognosing the development of personalities. The article deals with the investigation of one thousand vocational-technical schoolchildren and 300 teachers and tutors from seven schools. The data was collected through questionnaires, interviews, and observation. The computer of Vilnius University was used to amend the collected material. The reading motivation of regular and irregular readers was different. Some differences in the motivation of girls and boys were found. The reading motivation of VT schoolchildren is complicated, unstable, and not a strong construct, reflecting the main socio-psychological features of VT schoolchildren's socialization period. One-third of the tested young people indicated that reading is a matter of great importance. Another part of the schoolchildren expressed their positive but passive standpoint. The main obstacles in reading activity are time deficit, difficulties in finding interesting literature to read, challenges in buying books, and problems related to weak eyesight, memory, and attention. It is important to investigate the situational motivation for reading among VT schoolchildren in their school library. The main tasks of educators and librarians are to evaluate schoolchildren's reading practices and to uphold the prestige of reading in VT schools.

Preliminary Validity and Reliability of the Persian Version of The Situational Motivation Scale for use in Academic Sport Contexts

Motivation is one of the most important psychological factors in recognising human behavior in different settings. The purpose of this study was to analyse the reliability and validity of the Persian version of the Situational Motivation Scale (P-SIMS) developed by Guay et al., (2000) in academic sport settings. A total of 231 undergraduate students, 113 males (51.6%) and 106 females (48.4%), participated in the study. The P-SIMS consists of 16 items and four subscales: intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation, and amotivation. Cronbach's alpha coefficient, interclass correlation coefficient (ICC), confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis was used to determine the internal consistency of subscales, temporal reliability, construct validity of the scale respectively. The Standardized estimate of 16 questions shows that the CFI, GFI, and NNFI indexes are above 0.90 and the RMSEA index is below 0.08, indicating the acceptability of the fit indexes. Also, the results of the calculations performed to estimate the reliability of the scale factors show that the value of the Cronbach's alpha coefficient and interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) are good enough and considering that the internal consistency coefficients and temporal reliability of the components of the list are reasonable and appropriate, the reliability of the scale is confirmed. The results showed that P-SIMS has relatively acceptable construct validity and acceptable internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The results of this study support the preliminary validity and reliability of the P-SIMS for use in academic sport contexts.

Multitasking while studying - grit moderates the relationship of situational motivation and multitasking.

Multitasking during studying is frequent among students. In this experience sampling study we examine if multitasking during studying can be explained by situational study motivation and the personality trait grit; and if grit moderates the relationship of situational motivation and multitasking. Eighty-eight students participated. All participants planned to write an important exam within the upcoming 2 weeks. Situational motivation was conceptualized along the lines of self-determination theory, differentiating between autonomous and controlled motivation. Also, we assessed students' grit. Hypotheses were tested using multilevel modeling in MPlus. As predicted, students multitasked less when situational study motivation was autonomous (vs. controlled). Contrary to predictions, we did not find a significant main effect of grit on multitasking. However, the interaction effect was significant, indicating that in situations with relatively controlled study motivation grittier students are more likely to refrain from multitasking than their less gritty peers.

ПІДГОТОВКА ФАХІВЦІВ СПОРТИВНО-ОЗДОРОВЧОГО ТУРИЗМУ У ЗАКЛАДАХ ВИЩОЇ ОСВІТИ: ІНТЕРАКТИВНИЙ ПІДХІД

Team Actuality. The training of sports and health tourism specialists necessitates a shift in emphasis from traditional forms of education to innovative methods and ways of organizing the educational process in higher education institutions. The purpose of the research there is a systematization of methods and means of activating the educational process during classes in professional disciplines for the training of sports and health tourism specialists. Research methods. Analysis, comparison, systematization, generalization of scientific and methodical literature, pedagogical testing. Research results and key conclusions. The components of the professional training of specialists in this field have been identified, the expediency of using interactive technologies in the training of sports and health tourism specialists, first (bachelor's) level graduates in the specialty "Tourism" has been substantiated. The forms and methods of interactive training that can be used for the purpose of training sports and health tourism specialists include: discussion, presentation, heuristic conversation, round table method, business games, role-playing games, case method, practical group or individual exercises followed by discussion of results, simulation of interaction situations, analysis of video recordings, including recording of own actions, organization of meetings with invited specialists and outstanding people, collective solution of creative tasks, animation. The use of interactive learning methods actualizes the situational motives of activity; activity motivated by these incentives leads to the formation of established motives and values that lie in the semantic field of the individual's tourist competence. The use of interactive learning methods enriches the experience of independent activity and personal responsibility of students.

Virtual Reality High-Intensity Interval Training Exergaming Compared to Traditional High-Intensity Circuit Training Among Medical Students: Pilot Crossover Study.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a virtual reality (VR) high-intensity interval training (HIIT) boxing protocol compared to traditional high-intensity circuit training (HICT) in improving exercise motivation, engagement, and physiological responses among 30 healthy medical students. The purpose was to compare the VR HIIT protocol, which involved using an Oculus Quest 2 for a futuristic exoskeleton game experience, with a traditional 12-exercise HICT. In total, 30 medical students engaged in both VR HIIT, using an Oculus Quest 2 for a futuristic exoskeleton game experience, and a traditional 12-exercise HICT. Metrics included heart rate (HR) and blood lactate levels before and after exercise alongside ratings of perceived exertion and the Situational Motivation Scale. VR HIIT showed significantly higher mean HR (mean 161, SD 15 vs mean 144, SD 11 bpm; d=1.5; P<.001), peak HR (mean 182, SD 15 vs mean 176, SD 11 bpm; d=0.8; P=.001), and ratings of perceived exertion (mean 16, SD 2 vs mean 15, SD 2; d=0.4; P=.03). Postexercise lactate levels were higher in HICT (mean 8.8, SD 4.5 vs mean 10.6, SD 3.0 mmol/L; d=0.6; P=.006). Intrinsic motivation and other psychological measures showed no significant differences, except for lower fatigue in HICT (d=0.5; P=.02). VR HIIT significantly enhances physiological parameters while maintaining intrinsic motivation, making it a viable alternative to traditional HICT. However, the short-term nature of this study is a limitation, and future research should explore the long-term engagement and therapeutic impacts of VR exercise in diverse and clinical populations.

Motivation to learn Biology: Adaptation and validation of a Science Motivation Questionnaire with Slovene secondary school students

Motivation for biology can be considered as one of the most important factors influencing the teaching and learning of biology. Thus, the main objectives of this research were to test the validity of an instrument that measures students' motivation for the subject of biology, and to determine the situational motivation of Slovenian secondary school students for learning biology. Based on 516 completed web questionnaires filled in by various secondary school students from Slovenia, we came to the following conclusions. By applying non-parametric tests, we concluded that there were certain statistical differences between genders and between students from different secondary schools and regions when it came to motivation for studying biology. First-year students are more concerned with assessing knowledge. Those from the fourth year, on the other hand, are more interested in the knowledge they have acquired rather than the grade they have achieved. They also considered knowledge in biology as important for their life and thus for their career. The factor analysis yielded a structure different from the theoretical constructs. The responses of Slovenian secondary school students formed five factors for the motivation to learn biology: (1) intrinsic motivation and personal importance, (2) anxiety about assessment tasks, (3) self-efficacy in assessments, (4) career motivation and (5) responsibility. This information could be useful for teachers and researchers to promote motivation for the discipline and subject of biology. A lack of motivation in science can hinder science and science literacy, which is necessary for responsible decision-making and behaviour and in choosing a career in science.

Validity Evidence for Using the Situational Motivation Scale to Assess Pre-Clerkship Medical Student Motivation

Validity Evidence for Using the Situational Motivation Scale to Assess Pre-Clerkship Medical Student Motivation

Gender and circadian preferences influence emotions and motivation in secondary mathematics classrooms

ABSTRACT Many studies have reported poor school achievement in evening persons and general circadian fluctuations in cognition. The aim of this study was to analyze circadian fluctuations in a cross-sectional design and examine the effects of chronotype on situational emotions and intrinsic motivation. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted in three Turkish secondary schools with a total sample of 599 students (283 females and 316 males). Data were collected at the end of specific math lessons of the same grade level and content, using a form combining three scales. We found no gender-related differences in intrinsic motivation, while there were some differences in situational motivation. In math classes, female students exhibited higher level of interest, while boys scored higher on boredom. In addition, students who scored high on morning affect reported higher levels of interest, well-being, and less boredom. Students with higher stability (and lower fluctuations in mood and cognition during the day) reported a higher degree of enjoyment, perceived competence, perceived choice, and less pressure/tension in their math lessons. A positive association was observed between distinctness, interest, and well-being, while negative correlations existed between distinctness and boredom. This suggests that students with higher diurnal stability reported a higher level of interest, well-being, and a lower level of boredom. Additionally, the results of the analyses showed that morningness, distinctness, and eveningness were significant predictors of intrinsic motivation. Conversely, gender, time of application, morningness, and distinctness emerged as predictors for situational emotions in mathematics classes.

The intraindividual dynamics of university students' motivation and emotions: The role of autonomy-supportive learning climates and learning activities.

The motivation and emotions of students are context dependent. There are specific moments when students may find their coursework more or less motivating, resulting in stronger or milder emotional responses. Identifying factors directly controllable by teachers empowers them to effectively address challenging situations characterized by lower motivation and increased negative emotions. We aimed to investigate how learning activities and students' perception of teaching practices fostering autonomy relate to competence and value beliefs, and emotions in the context of course participation within higher education. Seventy-seven Taiwanese university students provided 762 learning reports associated with their course participation experiences. The experience sampling method (ESM) was used. Participants responded to ESM surveys on their phones for 14 days, reporting motivational beliefs, emotions and contextual characteristics of the course if they indicated active participation in a course upon receiving notifications from their phones. A significant portion of the variation is attributed to situational fluctuation, suggesting that academic emotions and competence and value beliefs vary within students across measurements. An increase in students' perception of an autonomy-supportive learning climate correlates with higher competence beliefs, intrinsic value and positive emotions, coupled with reduced perceived costs and negative emotions. In contrast to lectures, engaging in independent hands-on work, participating in group collaborative projects or interactive discussions appear to inspire motivation or evoke stronger emotional responses in students. Teachers' teaching practices and classroom learning activities play a pivotal role in shaping students' situational motivation and emotions.

How breaking a sweat affects mood: The mediating role of self-efficacy between physical exercise and emotion regulation ability.

This study investigates the association between physical exercise and emotion regulation abilities among college students, introducing self-efficacy as a mediating variable to analyze the pathway mechanism through which physical exercise affects emotion regulation abilities. A cross-sectional study design was employed, utilizing a stratified random sampling method to survey three colleges in Jiangsu Province, China. Physical Activity Rating Scale, Physical Activity Self-efficacy Scale, and Emotional Intelligence Scale were used to measure the college student population. Regression analysis and mediation tests assessed whether self-efficacy mediates the relationship between physical exercise and college students' emotion regulation abilities. A total of 5,430 valid questionnaires were collected. The distribution of college students' physical activities was 77.0% for low, 13.1% for medium, and 9.3% for high levels. Physical activities were significantly and positively correlated with self-efficacy and emotional management abilities (r = 0.298,0.105;P<0.01), and self-efficacy was significantly and positively correlated with emotional management abilities (r = 0.322, P<0.01). Situational motivation and subjective support under self-efficacy were 0.08 and 0.255, respectively, and the adjusted R2 was 0.107. Self-efficacy played a fully mediating role between physical activities and emotional management abilities, with a total effect value of 0.032. The values of the direct and indirect effects were 0.003 and 0.029, accounting for 8.95% and 90.74% of the total effect, respectively. The physical exercise behavior of college students is primarily characterized by low intensity. Physical exercise among college students can positively predict their ability to regulate emotions. Self-efficacy fully mediates the relationship between physical exercise and emotion regulation ability among college students. College students can indirectly influence their ability to regulate emotions through physical exercise and self-efficacy.