Situational Action Theory Research Articles

How Robust Is the Moderating Effect of Extremist Beliefs on the Relationship Between Self-Control and Violent Extremism?

The present research note studies the interaction between the ability to exercise self-control and extremist moral beliefs with regard to the explanation of violent extremism. Although some evidence exists for the interaction between moral beliefs and self-control in the explanation of adolescent offending, no previous study has studied this interaction effect in a survey of young adults and with regard to politically or religiously motivated violence. This study therefore extends the existing literature by testing a key proposition of Situational Action Theory. We use a large-scale web survey of young adults in Belgium. The results support the hypothesis that the effect of the ability to exercise self-control is conditional upon one’s extremist beliefs. The results are stable across extremism-specific measures of extremist beliefs.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE: A TEST OF CHANGE AND INFLUENCES IN CONTEXT OF SAT WITH GERMAN PANEL DATA

Morality as a key construct for the explanation of criminal behavior has a long tradition in criminology, but research in moral development in childhood and adolescence is mainly based in psychological explanations. This article gives a theoretical and empirical outline of the development of morality, especially for the explanation of crime involvement in context of Situational Action Theory (SAT; e.g. Wikstrom et al., 2012). SAT, introduced by Wikstrom and colleagues, is a promising new developed general theory of crime. SAT combines individual and contextual constructs into an integrative explanatory framework. With crime propensity mainly based on moral judgment, in its basic assumption, SAT proposes that the interaction of propensity and exposure determines delinquency. The probability of a criminal act to be committed depends on the criminal tendency (propensity) of a person in interaction with their exposure to criminogenic settings (exposure). To analyze the development of moral judgment during adolescence, data from the German panel study “Chances and Risks in the Life Course” will be used. The study, embedded within the project “The Development of Deviant and Delinquent Behavior over the Life Course and its Significance for Processes of Social Inequality” of the CRC 882 “From Heterogeneities to Inequalities” uses a cohort sequential design and was first conducted in 2012, with yearly follow up measurements. The sample consists of three interviewing time points of two age cohorts in the German cities of Dortmund (North-Rhine Westphalia) and Nuremberg (Bavaria). Moral development and its influences will be examined by applying latent growth curve models. The strongest effect on the development of moral judgment appears to be the moral emotion shame with decreasing influences of family and increasing influences of peers during adolescence.

Ecological Determinants of Situated Choice in Situational Action Theory

Objectives:This study extends theoretical arguments from situational action theory (SAT) by focusing on the enduring effects of neighborhood context on individual criminal involvement and presents the first direct multilevel assessment of SAT in non-Western contexts using neighborhood data.Methods:Survey data from a random sample of 1,435 adults in 41 neighborhoods in Russia and Ukraine are used to assess the interplay between individual criminal propensity and moral and deterrent qualities of neighborhood environments in their effects on individual offending.Results:The results demonstrate that variations in neighborhood moral rules directly influence criminal involvement, confirming SAT’s extended argument that this type of neighborhood-level predictor of offending matters and has an enduring effect on misconduct. Furthermore, consistent with SAT’s propositions, principal individual-level predictors such as personal criminal propensity and individual perceptions of neighborhood informal sanctioning exert expected significant effects on criminal involvement. Results for cross-level interaction effects are inconclusive.Conclusions:SAT, a multilevel theory of crime, shows promise in various sociocultural contexts such as Eastern European countries of Russia and Ukraine.

When Crime is not an Option: Inspecting the Moral Filtering of Criminal Action Alternatives

Many theories assume legal compliance stems from rational deliberations about consequences of disobedience. In contrast, morality theories such as Wikström’s Situational Action Theory contend personal morality and moral contexts provide a “filter” prohibiting some people from perceiving and contemplating criminal actions as realistic possibilities. We examine this moral filtering hypothesis using face-to-face household survey data from 573 adults in the Dhaka District of Bangladesh. Results suggest individuals with higher levels of personal morality (moral beliefs; guilt from contemplating violence; moral identity; emotional empathy) and exposure to strong moral settings are less likely to contemplate aggressive and violent actions in response to a provocation. Furthermore, these dimensions of personal and contextual morality appear to be indirectly linked to violent criminal actions through individuals’ tendencies to contemplate aggressive actions when provoked. Overall, our initial inspection of the moral filter hypothesis provides substantial support and highlights areas for theoretical clarification and additional research.

Causes of the causes of juvenile delinquency: Social disadvantages in the context of Situational Action Theory

This article focuses on the relationship between crime and social disadvantages by applying Situational Action Theory (Wikström 2006, 2009; Wikström et al., 2012) to explain the delinquent behaviour of adolescents. According to Situational Action Theory, criminal acts are the result of a perception-choice process that is guided by the interaction of a person’s crime propensity and the criminogenic conditions of the environment. Social disadvantages are not causes of criminal behaviour but rather causes of the causes. Social disadvantages affect the emergence of crime propensity and criminogenic exposure of individuals. This relationship between crime and disadvantages in the context of Situational Action Theory will be empirically tested by applying structural equation modelling and testing for indirect effects of several structural heterogeneities. The results show that the relationship between heterogeneity features and delinquency for the most part is mediated by the theoretical assumptions of SAT.

Are all police officers equally triggered? A test of the interaction between moral support for the use of force and exposure to provocation

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study is to investigate the interplay between moral support for the use of force and exposure to provocative settings in explaining individual differences in self-reported use of force by the police. In the police literature, the relationship between a suspect’s behaviour and police use of force has often been scrutinised. Those studies conclude that a suspect’s resistance is a key predictor of police use of force. In this article, we start from a different theoretical approach towards the study of police use of force based on one of the main principles of Wikström’s situational action theory (SAT). We examine the extent to which a police officer’s self-reported use of force can be explained by the main and interactive effects of moral support for the use of force and exposure to provocative settings. Our findings provide some evidence for SAT, and indicate that the effect of exposure to provocative settings is especially strong among police officers who score highly on moral support for the use of force.

Political Violence and the Mediating Role of Violent Extremist Propensities

Research into violent extremism is lacking integrated theoretical frameworks explaining individual involvement in politically or religiously motivated violence, resulting in a poor understanding of causal mechanisms. Building on situational action theory, the current study moves beyond the dominant risk factor approach and proposes an integrated model for the explanation of political/religious violence, distinguishing between direct mechanisms and “causes of the causes.” The model integrates mechanisms from different but complementary traditions. Following previous work, this study focusses on the causes of the causes influencing direct key mechanisms, violent extremist propensity, and exposure to violent extremist moral settings that explain political/religious violence. The theoretical model is tested using structural equation modelling. The analyses are based on a web survey (N = 6,020) among adolescents and young adults in Belgium. Results show that violent extremist propensity and exposure to violent extremist moral settings have direct effects on the likelihood of political/religious violence. These direct mechanisms are in turn determined by a series of exogenous factors: perceived injustice and poor social integration. The relationship between perceived injustice and poor social integration and political/religious violence is further mediated by perceived alienation, perceived procedural justice, and religious authoritarianism. The implications of these findings are discussed. This article is available in Journal of Strategic Security: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol9/iss2/5

Tax evasion in Sweden 2002–2013: interpreting changes in the rot/rut deduction system and predicting future trends

In this article we report on the effects of recent changes in tax policy in Sweden as a case study of tax evasion. We use situational crime prevention principles and insights drawn from situational action theory to construct an analytical framework to assess how changes in tax policy affect individuals’ and companies’ motivations for tax evasion; first decreasing motivations and then increasing them. The analysis relies mostly on secondary data from reports published by the Swedish Tax Agency. We then make specific predictions regarding future trends in tax evasion. We analyse how buyers and providers of certain services that are taxed might be affected by changes in the tax deduction system and we predict that an increasing percentage of them will consider engaging in tax evasion. We conclude by discussing actions that the tax authorities might take to prevent increases in tax evasion.

Social Mechanisms in Norm-relevant Situations: Explanations for Theft by Finding in High-cost, and Low-cost Situation

Abstract At the centre of this study is the theoretical and empirical analysis of action-formation mechanisms in norm-relevant, situations. Basically two mechanisms are employed, namely action according to a) moral principles and b) the principle of deterrence. Conflicting assumptions concerning the way these mechanisms work are deduced from two theoretical perspectives, the high-cost/low-cost. hypothesis and Situational Action Theory (SAT). While the high-cost/low-cost. hypothesis leads to the assumption that, criminal action is explained by the principle of deterrence in high-cost, situations and, in low-cost, situations, by moral principles, it. follows from SAT that., in high-cost, situations, the principle of deterrence has an effect, only on those persons with weak moral principles, and influences of moral principles are expected in low-cost, situations. Empirical analysis of these hypotheses is conducted with the help of data that, have been collected as part, of a mail survey (n=2383) of a disproportionately layered random sample of residents of an East. German city. Data analyses are carried out. in order to estimate the influences of the theoretically specified predictors simultaneously for high-cost, and low-cost, situations with multiple group comparisons. The study’s results partially support, both theoretical perspectives. They are finally discussed with respect, to theoretical and methodological aspects.

Social Disadvantage and Crime: A Criminological Puzzle.

In this article, we analyze the relationship between social disadvantage and crime, starting from the paradox that most persistent offenders come from disadvantaged backgrounds, but most people from disadvantaged backgrounds do not become persistent offenders. We argue that despite the fact that social disadvantage has been a key criminological topic for some time, the mechanisms which link it to offending remain poorly specified. Drawing on situational action theory, we suggest social disadvantage is linked to crime because more people from disadvantaged versus affluent backgrounds develop a high crime propensity and are exposed to criminogenic contexts, and the reason for this is that processes of social and self-selection place the former more frequently in (developmental and action) contexts conducive to the development and expression of high crime propensities. This article will explore this hypothesis through a series of analyses using data from the Peterborough Adolescent and Young Adult Development Study (PADS+), a longitudinal study which uses a range of data collection methods to study the interaction between personal characteristics and social environments. It pays particular attention to the macro-to-micro processes behind the intersection of people with certain characteristics and environments with certain features – i.e., their exposure – which leads to their interaction.

Moral Propensity, Setting, and Choice: A Partial Test of Situational Action Theory

ABSTRACTWikström’s Situational Action Theory (2004) proposes that deviant acts are the product of a series of interactions between individual- and situational-level causal factors: (1) individuals’ moral propensity interacts with situational temptations/provocations to determine which action alternatives are available, (2) individuals’ self-control and situational deterrence interact to influence the choice of action taken. The present study uses self-report data on the frequency of academic dishonesty to test these interactions. The results provide mixed support for the theory.

Terrorism Outside the Proverbial Vacuum: Implications for the Moral Context

ABSTRACTPrior research has found that terrorists are not susceptible to certain and severe countermeasures. One possibility is that, instead, deterrence is relative. Based on this premise and inspired by situational action theory’s conceptualization of the “moral context,” this research proposes that there are circumstances that influence both moral norms and their enforcement. We hypothesize that one set of circumstances is that of high profile terrorist attacks, which in turn should decrease the hazard of future incidents. We find mixed support for our hypotheses, but maintain that it has important implications for policy.

On the Conditional Relevance of Controls: An Application of Situational Action Theory to Shoplifting

ABSTRACTClassic self-control theory and the pure deterrence argument have both been recently challenged by integrative theory and appropriate empirical evidence suggesting that controls are only conditionally relevant to action. Situational Action Theory (SAT) provides a fertile framework within which to study the effectiveness of controls. Specifically, SAT’s principle of the conditional relevance of controls states that controls only influence behavior when a person is forced to deliberate over action alternatives because of conflict between his/her own moral rules and those of the setting. That the moral filter does not preclude crime from the action alternatives perceived by an individual can be due to weak personal moral norms or exposure to a crime-conducive moral context. In particular, SAT states that (1) deterrence (external control) only becomes relevant to deliberations when personal morality is weak and (2) the process of self-control (internal control) only becomes relevant to deliberations when an individual is exposed to criminogenic moral contexts. Both these hypotheses are tested with a large-scale Austrian student survey dedicated to the explanation of adolescent shoplifting. The results provide firm support for these key propositions of SAT.

The interaction between self-control and morality in crime causation among older adults

Situational Action Theory (SAT), a recently developed explanation of criminal conduct, is becoming increasingly studied. Hitherto, however, nearly all tests of the theory and its hypotheses have been based on samples of adolescents or young adults. Studies drawing on the older population have been missing so far. This work addresses the interplay of moral beliefs and the ability to exercise self-control in crime causation among respondents aged 50 years and over. In line with SAT and the results obtained previously for young people, our analyses show that self-control ability affects offending among older adults too, particularly when personal morality is weak.

Morality, Rationality and Academic Dishonesty: A Partial Test of Situational Action Theory

This study uses self-report survey data from a sample of college students to provide a partial test of Wikstrӧm’s situational action theory (2010a) by examining the extent, if any, to which the effects of perceptual deterrence on academic dishonesty are moderated by personal morality. The findings show that both personal morality and perceived certainty of formal sanctions are inversely associated with cheating; however, the deterrent effect of high perceived certainty of formal sanctions is not greater among those with weak moral prohibitions against cheating as predicted by Wikstrӧm and observed by Svensson (2015) in an earlier test of Wikstrӧm’s situational action theory.

Gender Differences in Delinquency and Situational Action Theory: A Partial Test

This paper investigates to what extent a recent perspective in criminology, Situational Action Theory, is valid for both males and females and to what extent elements from the theory explain gender differences in delinquency. Data are used from the first (N = 843) and second (N = 616) wave of the Study of Peers, Activities, and Neighborhoods, which included detailed data about core elements of Situational Action Theory (morality, self-control, unsupervised peer activity and peer deviancy), proposed indirect causes (bonds with parents and school, parental monitoring) and self-reported delinquency. Cross-sectional and lagged Tobit regression analyses show that the core relations with delinquency are not significantly different between boys and girls and that the elements of Situational Action Theory are able to explain gender differences in delinquency for a substantial part. However, there is still a remaining independent effect of gender on current and lagged delinquency.

Situational Action Theory: Cross-Sectional and Cross-Lagged Tests of Its Core Propositions

Situational Action Theory (SAT) is a recently developed general action theory of crime that integrates and synthesizes existing individual and ecological explanations. SAT explicitly states that the individual’s propensity for criminal behaviour (morality and self-control) and exposure to criminogenic settings (rule breaking peers and time spent in unsupervised, unstructured activities) interact to determine whether a crime is committed. In the present article, core assumptions of SAT are tested by estimating cross-sectional and lagged models on two-wave panel data from adolescents in The Hague (The Netherlands). Generally, the findings support SAT, including the situational interaction between morality and self-control. However, the findings also raise questions about SAT. In particular, we did not find lagged effects of morality on later offending, and we found only a few significant interaction effects on offending between the two peer variables and morality and self-control. Generally, there was not much support for the SAT theory that adolescents with low morality or low self-control are more vulnerable to (situational) peer influences. The article concludes with a discussion of how additional situational peer variables may be included in SAT.

Is the criminogenic effect of exposure to peer delinquency dependent on the ability to exercise self-control? Results from three countries

PurposeAssociation with delinquent peers is one of the most salient predictors of criminal behavior. Little is known, however, about whether the criminogenic peer effect is conditioned by individual characteristics such as the ability to exercise self-control. MethodsInformed by Situational Action Theory's principle of the conditional relevance of controls, the present article uses crime survey data from three European countries to examine whether the criminogenic effect of exposure to delinquent peers is dependent on adolescents' capability for self-control. ResultsResults suggest that the delinquent peer effect on self-reported offending is amplified when self-control is low. ConclusionThe fact that high self-control protects from detrimental peer influences is perfectly in line with Situational Action Theory's conceptualization of the perception-choice process.

The role of symptoms of psychopathy in persistent violence over the criminal career into full adulthood

PurposeThe extant criminal career literature supports the assertion that risk factors for violent offending are the same as those for non-violent offending. However, such studies have not examined the role of psychopathic personality disturbance (PPD) in the development of persistent violence across the life course. A situational action theory perspective was used to help illustrate the utility of PPD in explaining persistent violent offending. MethodsConvictions for violent and non-violent offenses were measured for Canadian male (n=262) and female (n=64) offenders at each year between ages 12 and 28. Semi-parametric group-based modeling was used to identify joint trajectories of violent and non-violent offending. Symptoms of adolescent PPD and other criminogenic risk factors were also measured. ResultsThrough the joint trajectory model, five violent and five non-violent trajectories were identified. PPD emerged as a strong predictor of membership in the trajectory associated with chronic violent offending but lower levels of non-violent offending. ConclusionsContrary to earlier criminal career research, the most persistent violent offenders were not also the most frequent general offenders. Theories that help explain why individuals are involved in persistent violence are needed. Incorporating PPD into such a theoretical framework appears necessary.

Explaining Violent Extremism for Subgroups by Gender and Immigrant Background, Using SAT as a Framework

The principal object of this paper is to study the effects of extremist propensity, exposure to extremist moral settings and their interaction effect on political violence in sub groups by gender and immigrant background. The situational action theory, as outlined by Wikström is used as a framework. Although previous studies have found empirical evidence for this interaction effect in the light of general offending, no study so far has applied SAT to the study of violent extremism. In doing so, we will also address the stability of the interaction effect by gender and immigrant background. The present study is based on a large web survey on self-reported political violence as a measure for violent extremism. Strong support is found for the hypothesis that the effect of exposure to violent extremist moral settings is depending on the strength or weakness of individual violent extremist propensity. This indicates that exposure to violent extremist moral settings has the strongest effect on political violence for individuals with a high propensity to violent extremism. These results imply that SAT can be used to as a framework to explain individual violent extremism. This pattern is found for boys and girls of both native (Belgian) and immigrant background.