Site Stewardship Research Articles

Archaeology as a method and tool for resilience

ABSTRACT Climate change is having an immediate and devastating effect on archaeological sites in Florida. The Florida Public Archaeology Network's Heritage Monitoring Scouts (HMS Florida) program empowers local communities to document the impacts of climate change at sites throughout the state. Our ability to document sites shows humanity's resilience to climate fluctuations in the past while also making it clear that adaptation and mitigation of coastal areas in the face of modern anthropogenic climate change must be paramount. This article describes two case studies from coastal Florida that have served as visceral points of focus for local communities to see the impacts of climate change. At Shell Bluff Landing in the northeast part of the state a site stewardship program was developed to closely document changes in time starting in 2016 with alarming results. In the opposite corner of the state at Calusa Island, a private land trust was created to protect local natural environments from the impacts of development. The coastal island has subsequently seen massive loss due to erosion. The article concludes with actions archaeologists can take today to make the communities they work with more resilient, using a prioritization system developed with Palm Beach County as an example.

Adoption of coral propagation and out-planting via the tourism industry to advance site stewardship on the northern Great Barrier Reef

Coral propagation via nurseries and out-planting practices has increased worldwide in the last decade to improve stakeholder-led stewardship aimed at retaining or rehabilitating local reef site health. Until 2017/18, stewardship activities by the tourism industry on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) have been restricted to operations such as corallivore control and environmentally responsible operations. However, back-to-back bleaching events in 2016/17 catalysed implementation of coral propagation at “high-value” tourism sites, with the goal to overcome conventional cost-efficiency limitations associated with growing and re-planting (out-planting) coral via a novel tourism-research partnership model, “Coral Nurture Program” (CNP) in Far North Queensland. Staged implementation across partners (Phase 1 – “development” via 1 operator; Phase 2 – “adoption” via 4 further operators) resulted in establishment of 72 coral nurseries stocked with >4500 coral fragments from >36 species and out-planting of 21,020 coral fragments of >29 species using a rapid deployment device (Coralclip®). Key elements to the success of CNP were identified through regular partner meetings, and included utilising complimentary expertise, resources and knowledge essential to the continued improvement of best practice and standard operating procedures from both researchers and operators. Here, we specifically examine activity of the CNP from its inception (February 2018) until December 2020, to compare and evaluate how collective propogation by multiple tourism operators coupled with research validation can collaboratively enhance site stewardship at scale across GBR high-value tourism sites. Similarities are drawn between our CNP model and other stewardship-based management models, including adherence to a “code of operation” that ensures trust and equitability across partners. Novel aspects driving CNP success include the flexibility in adoption of CNP workflows to suit individual business preferences (e.g.conducting activity during normal day to day tourism operations versus tourism downturns (e.g. COVID-19)), and use of research to guide objective improvements in site (operator)-specific effectiveness of out-planting and nursery success. In doing so, we use CNP to identify how our tourism-research coral propagation approach could aid stewardship-based management of other reefs where economies are reliant on tourism.

A synthesis of the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative according to the Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation

The Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (GLRI), designed to restore and protect the ecology of the Laurentian Great Lakes, is one of the largest environmental funding programs in the United States. Over 5,400 grants have been awarded in the last 11 years (2010–2020), representing over $3.5 billion in federal spending. A publicly available database that contains a written description about each grant is available online. However, analysis cannot easily be performed given that the descriptions are only textual. Therefore, we applied a modified version of the Conservation Action Classification (CAC 2.0), an established framework from the Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation, to synthesize the number of restoration actions, target species, and specific threats mentioned using thematic content analysis. The framework was modified to expand the CAC 2.0 by adding actions specific to GLRI. For example, we created typologies for the monitoring performed, site stewardship actions, and maritime ballast management practices. Based on this tally, we provide a summary of all the GLRI efforts to date. In addition to the more widely known restoration actions, we also describe the extent of educational, capacity building, and the non-monetary value projects that considered human wellbeing and/or focused on traditional ecological knowledge, recreation, or public outreach and engagement. Finally, we conclude with a discussion about the state of GLRI, the extent of the social or community-oriented efforts, and possible areas for adaptive management. This systematic coding process, and our shared supplementary data, can assist future GLRI research and strategic planning.

The Role of ‘Sense of Place’ in the Revitalisation of Heritage Street: George Town, Penang, Malaysia

In revitalising heritage sites, understanding ‘sense of place’ is important as it represents a layering of histories, tangible heritage, and intangible heritage. This study examines the relationship between local communities and the cultural heritage in George Town World Heritage Site, Malaysia. Semi-structured interviews with local communities, observations and digital photo analysis were conducted. It is in the intricacies of intangible heritage practices and their authentic expression, the local communities feel attached to and claim ownership of the place. Understanding this and how it translates into the site's stewardship is critical in protecting its value, management, and ongoing revitalisation. Keywords: Sense of Place; Urban Revitalisation; Heritage Street; World Heritage Site eISSN: 2398-4287© 2021. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open access article under the CC BYNC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians/Africans/Arabians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/ebpj.v6i18.3080

Implementing Participatory Site Stewardship through Citizen Science and Mobile Apps

ABSTRACTHistoric archaeological resources in the American West are increasingly at risk of loss because of prolonged droughts, wildfires, earthquakes, general deterioration, and the negative impact of increasing visitation. Casual visitors regularly remove objects from their original contexts in the landscape, either taking them home as souvenirs or bringing them to local staff because they are concerned about the items disappearing. As a result, many sites of cultural significance are losing the ability to convey the information required for scholarly interpretation and for drafting community and life histories of their past residents. We argue that citizen science and mobile apps specifically designed for site stewardship are viable tools for alleviating negative human impacts on cultural landscapes and enhancing our capacity to record and monitor sites of cultural heritage. We contend that our approach uses an innovative interface, the Citizen Preservationist app, an open-source hybrid mobile/desktop software we developed to foster both current use and protection of archaeological sites and historic parks. We demonstrated the viability of our app by conducting a user study at Bodie, California (ca. 1859–1942), that assessed how this software promotes a sense of stewardship and appreciation for the archaeological heritage of this beloved California State Historic Park.

Application of the Karst Disturbance Index (KDI) to Kobokwe Cave and Gorge, SE Botswana: Implications for the Management of a Nationally Important Geoheritage Site

Geoheritage sites can provide an excellent resource for sustainable development that represents a growing movement in Africa. Kobokwe Cave is formed within the Middle Proterozoic–aged sandstone of Kobokwe Gorge and is nationally important; the cave is the site where British missionary David Livingstone spent a night in 1847 and subsequently converted Kgosi (Chief) Kgari Sechele I, the first and only Christian “conversion” at that time by Livingstone. However, the site currently appears undervalued as there are little stewardship and minimal organized tourism and is affected by litter, graffiti, fires, illegal dumping and sand mining, and noise pollution from a nearby road; the building of the road itself destroyed a boulder of cultural significance. To test the level of environmental disturbance, the Karst Disturbance Index (KDI) was employed and this is the first known application to a non-carbonate karst environment and the first such application in Africa. Field observations were coupled with laboratory analyses of physico-chemical, nitrate, and heavy metal parameters in soil and water from the site. The final KDI score for Kobokwe of 0.29 is classed as showing “minor disturbance” and likely due to low visitor numbers although the sub-category of cultural disturbance scored 12 and is relatively high, as also found in previously published KDI studies from the USA, Italy, and Mexico. The analytical results are mostly at natural background levels, except for Pb in the cave floor soil (5.13 mg/L) and Pb in all water samples (0.3–0.63 mg/L) likely due to nearby vehicular traffic; also, Fe in all water samples (0.79–1.13 mg/L) that has possibly leached from the gorge sandstone and the spring water was slightly above standard background levels and possibly leached from nearby soil/rock. Future recommendations to avoid further disturbance and to promote environmental management of the site include community involvement, litter bin installation, graffiti removal, tour guides, information panels, entrance gate, tarred road, footpath installation, and enforcing of stronger site stewardship.

Values in nature conservation, tourism and UNESCO World Heritage Site stewardship

ABSTRACT This paper seeks to understand the complex values held by those involved in Protected Area and World Heritage stewardship. Using IUCN Protected Area categories, a values framework is developed and applied to demonstrate how values guide stewardship in protected areas. In-depth interviews with key tourism operators, public sector managers and other stakeholders from the iconic World Heritage Site and tourism destination, Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR) reveal how shifting ideologies and government policies increased pressures on nature, resulting in new alliances between stewards from the tourism sector and national and international organisations. These alliances were built on shared nature conservation values and successfully reduced increasing development pressures. Three distinct phases in this process emerged at the GBR, which were driven by personal values held by tourism industry representatives, and their recognition of tourism's reliance on nature for business success. Changing mainstream ideologies and political values can erode World Heritage and Protected Areas, and recalibrate values – including the universal values on which World Heritage Sites depend – towards more anthropocentric interpretations. The values framework presented here could be a powerful tool for stewards involved in conservation to remind those who merely manage and govern of the original nature-focused values.

An Analysis of Factors Driving Success in Ecological Restoration Projects by a University-Community Partnership

Every year since 2000, five to ten ecological restoration projects have been implemented on public and private lands in the Puget Sound region of Washington State by the University of Washington Restoration Ecology Network (UW-REN) capstone program. Students, faculty, and community partners have collaborated to implement these restoration projects, improve ecological function at the sites, and build site stewardship. Approximately twenty-nine, 2,000 m2 projects from the first ten years of the capstone projects were retrospectively evaluated using a variety of response variables that could reflect ecological “success”, including native species cover, richness, and diversity in the restoration plant community. We hypothesized that certain elements of restoration design and implementation, such as selected techniques for invasive vegetation management and the resulting degree of site stewardship, would strongly contribute to the success of these restoration projects. Stewardship was found to contribute to native species cover, richness, and diversity. Native plant species richness and diversity responded to initial invasive control techniques; stem-only removal did not work as well as root system removal for native species richness or diversity. The use of wood chip and cardboard-with-wood chip sheet mulches had less clear effects on species richness. An interaction between mulch and control technique was found to contribute to species diversity evenness. Overall, this study of restoration projects led by university students in cooperation with community partners highlights the importance of specific elements of restoration design and implementation and due diligence in the form of long-term stewardship.

Incorporating Archaeology Into Local Government Historic Preservation and Planning: A Review of Current Practice

Problem, research strategy, and findings: The fate of archaeological sites in cities, towns, and county jurisdictions are greatly affected by the decisions of local governments and planning departments, which usually operate with little formal guidance regarding archaeological site stewardship. What strategies do local governments use to effectively manage archaeological sites in their jurisdictions? Which ones work best? To address these questions, we carried out an exploratory study of mechanisms used by local government planners for archaeological resource protection in 24 states between 2008 and 2015, obtaining information from 69 local governments. We use questionnaires and interviews with local government staff, Tribal Historic Preservation Officers (THPOs), and State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPOs), identifying the range of practices employed. Within the jurisdictions we studied, the most elaborate programs a) have local ordinances protecting archaeology, on-staff archaeologists, and use special archaeological districts and zoning overlays, survey, and development guidelines linked to archaeological site probability models; b) maintain cost-saving partnerships with SHPOs, THPOs, universities, and local nonprofit heritage organizations; c) or use a combination of these practices.Takeaway for practice: Virtually all local governments possess archaeological resources and an archaeological heritage worthy of protection. Local site preservation is most effective when it moves from project-based compliance to become an integral part of the overall planning process. By protecting these places and educating the public regarding their importance, local governments help to bolster local economies, local pride, and local amenities in a way that benefits residents, tourists, and generations to come.

Private property, public archaeology: resident communities as stakeholders in American archaeology

In the United States, archaeological sites on private lands have few legal protections, and are thus at risk of damage or destruction. To alleviate these risks, archaeologists must engage thoughtfully with private property owners and develop strategies to promote site stewardship. In this article, I identify the resident community – those people who live on archaeological sites, regardless of their ancestral ties to those sites – as an important stakeholder in archaeology. Based on recent fieldwork experiences on a privately owned site in the south-eastern US, I discuss the unique challenges of engaging a resident community in archaeological research, and the potential of such engagement for fostering archaeological stewardship. Specifically, I use theories of place attachment derived from environmental psychology to explore how resident communities may be encouraged to empathize with and protect the archaeological records of past people.

Citizen Science in Archaeology

Copyright © 2014 by the Society for American Archaeology. Citizen science, as a process of volunteer participation through crowdsourcing, facilitates the creation of mass data sets needed to address subtle and large-scale patterns in complex phenomena. Citizen science efforts in other field disciplines such as biology, geography, and astronomy indicate how new web-based interfaces can enhance and expand upon archaeologists' existing platforms of volunteer engagement such as field schools, community archaeology, site stewardship, and professional-avocational partnerships. Archaeological research can benefit from the citizen science paradigm in four ways: fieldwork that makes use of widely available technologies such as mobile applications for photography and data upload; searches of large satellite image collections for site identification and monitoring; crowdfunding; and crowdsourced computer entry of heritage data.

Citizen Science in Archaeology

Abstract Citizen science, as a process of volunteer participation through crowdsourcing, facilitates the creation of mass data sets needed to address subtle and large-scale patterns in complex phenomena. Citizen science efforts in other field disciplines such as biology, geography, and astronomy indicate how new web-based interfaces can enhance and expand upon archaeologists’ existing platforms of volunteer engagement such as field schools, community archaeology, site stewardship, and professional–avocational partnerships. Archaeological research can benefit from the citizen science paradigm in four ways: fieldwork that makes use of widely available technologies such as mobile applications for photography and data upload; searches of large satellite image collections for site identification and monitoring; crowdfunding; and crowdsourced computer entry of heritage data.

Determination and Maintenance of de Minimis Risk for Migration of Residual Tritium (3H) From the 1969 Project Rulison Nuclear Test to Nearby Hydraulically Fractured Natural Gas Wells

The Project Rulison underground nuclear test was a proof-of-concept experiment that was conducted under the Plowshare Program in 1969 in the Williams Fork Formation of the Piceance Basin in west-central Colorado. Today, commercial production of natural gas is possible from low permeability, natural gas bearing formations like that of the Williams Fork Formation using modern hydraulic fracturing techniques. With natural gas exploration and production active in the Project Rulison area, this human health risk assessment was performed in order to add a human health perspective for site stewardship. Tritium (H) is the radionuclide of concern with respect to potential induced migration from the test cavity leading to subsequent exposure during gas-flaring activities. This analysis assumes gas flaring would occur for up to 30 d and produce atmospheric H activity concentrations either as low as 2.2 × 10 Bq m (6 × 10 pCi m) from the minimum detectable activity concentration in produced water or as high as 20.7 Bq m (560 pCi m), which equals the highest atmospheric measurement reported during gas-flaring operations conducted at the time of Project Rulison. The lifetime morbidity (fatal and nonfatal) cancer risks calculated for adults (residents and workers) and children (residents) from inhalation and dermal exposures to such activity concentrations are all below 1 × 10 and considered de minimis. The implications for monitoring production water for conforming health-protective, risk-based action levels also are examined.

Culture and change: learning from the past through Community Archaeology on the North Slope

The Nuvuk Archaeology Project has provided opportunities for North Alaskan high school students to participate in an archaeological project at Nuvuk, Point Barrow, Alaska. The project has been successful scientifically, shedding light on the questions of the thousand-year-old Thule origins and migration, and extending the known distribution of the older Ipiutak culture by 500 km north. It has been equally successful in terms of student engagement and education. Students have learned about doing science (particularly archaeology) and about heritage site stewardship. Students have gone on to college intending to pursue degrees in anthropology/archaeology. The excitement of participating in a real research project, where new information is being learned, seems to play an important part in their decisions. Nonlocal students have learned about a rural Alaskan community and about doing community-based research. We have expanded the ways we do public outreach, moving beyond traditional public talks and school visits to print and broadcast media. We participate in Web-focused Arctic science outreach programs, a Facebook group, Twitter, and a blog. We will have project web pages tied to various education portals. The digital media prove to be particularly useful in reaching our local Arctic community.

Seabird Nesting and Conservation in the Northern Bahamas

Seabirds and other colonial waterbirds nesting in the northern Bahamas are nearly undocumented. This study is the first complete inventory of seabirds and other colonial waterbirds nesting in the northern Bahamas (including the islands of the Abacos, Grand Bahamas, Biminis, and Berries). The survey found 20,267 nests of 19 species of seabirds and other colonial waterbirds at 113 colony sites. The over 40,000 seabirds and other colonial waterbirds found nesting in the northern Bahamas doubles population estimates previously published for The Bahamas as a whole, which included few of these sites. Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata) was the most abundant species, having a nesting population of over 10,000 pairs. Next most abundant were the Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus), Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla), and Brown Noddy (Sterna stolidus). This paper documents the first nesting record in the Commonwealth of The Bahamas of the White Ibis (Eudocimus albus), the first recent nesting in northern Bahamas of the Magnificent Frigatebird (Fregatta magnificens), and the first recent nesting in Grand Bahama of the Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis). Based on the results, 27 sites may be recognized as of special importance to seabird conservation in the northern Bahamas. Opportunities for conservation, including community-based colony site stewardship and protection of the most important sites within twelve protected areas are discussed.

The role of archived photographs in Native California archaeology

Archived photographs are discussed as a proven and principal means to understand cultural landscapes and the archaeological sites within. Photographs offer one means to include the voices and oral traditions of Native American descendent communities in an archaeological project by emphasizing the visceral ties between places and the people who created them. As artifacts, archived photographs act as touchstones to generate stories about people and places. They are capable of solidifying ties between people and ancestral territories, and their ability to engage Native Americans and other audiences in interpretive settings suggests their role as teaching devices. These three roles of archived photographs complement an indigenous archaeology by involving and empowering Native American communities, integrating oral traditions, and fostering a sense of site stewardship.