Sites In Tanzania Research Articles

Levels, compositions and distributions of organochlorine pesticide residues in soil 5–14 years after clean-up of former storage sites in Tanzania

The levels, compositions and distributions of organochlorine pesticides and metabolites were determined in soil samples collected 5–14years after clean-up was carried out at seven contaminated sites in Tanzania. Samples were collected from various depths (5–10cm, 30cm, and 50cm for most sites and up to 300cm for one site. Determination of the analytes was performed using a high resolution GC–MS and isotope dilution technology. DDT, DDD, DDE, HCH isomers, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, endosulfans, chlordanes and heptachlor were the major compounds detected. The concentrations of total DDT and total HCH were up to 250000 and 164000mgkg−1, respectively, while the highest concentrations for other compounds ranged from 29 to 3300mgkg−1. The results indicated that there were no significant degradations/transformations of the pesticides for most of the sites. The highest concentrations of the compounds were mostly found in surface soil samples and there were variations in distribution among the sampling depths. The results indicate risks and concerns for public health and the environment.

Tenure Issues in REDD+ Pilot Project Sites in Tanzania

REDD+ has been proposed as a viable option for addressing climate change in the near term, and at relatively low cost. There is a broad consensus that clearly defined tenure rights are important for the implementation and success of REDD+, both to manage forests effectively and to protect local communities’ livelihoods. We use primary data from 23 villages in six REDD+ pilot sites in Tanzania to identify causes of deforestation and forest degradation, and tenure rights issues, at the village level prior to project implementation. Further, interviews with project proponents and examination of project documents yields insights into how the proponents plan to address tenure issues. Most villages perceive their tenure as secure and have exclusion rights, while collective action challenges are prevalent in villages experiencing deforestation and forest degradation. These findings suggest that the main tenure issues are related to internal institutional arrangements. While we find that tenure is high on the agenda for all the project proponents, they are mainly focusing on formalization and securing tenure rights from state to community level. Though we do find this to be a precondition for reducing deforestation and degradation, some of their focus should be shifted to strengthening village institutions and enhancing internal compliance.

Tenure Issues in REDD+ Pilot Project Sites in Tanzania

Tenure Issues in REDD+ Pilot Project Sites in Tanzania

Status and distributions of pesticides buried at five sites in Arusha and Mbeya regions, Tanzania

This study investigated the compositions and distributions of pesticides buried at five sites in Tanzania. Samples were collected from various depths up to 220 cm. The analytes in samples were extracted by pressurized fluid extraction. Labelled internal standards were used for identification and quantification. Clean-up of extracts was conducted by using column chromatographic techniques. Determination of the analytes was performed by using a high resolution GC–MS. The dominant compounds detected were 4,4'-DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), 2,4'-DDT, 4,4'-DDE, 2,4'-DDE, 4,4'-DDD, 2,4'-DDD, hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers (α-, β-, γ-, δ- and e-HCH), aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, pentachlorobenzene, hexachlorobenzene, pentachloroanisole, endosulfans, chlordanes, heptachlor and heptachloroepoxides. The highest concentrations of total DDT and total HCH ranged 5.2 to 5410 mg/kg dry weight (dw) and 1.4 to 42200 mg/kg dw, respectively, while the highest concentrations for other compounds varied from 1.1 to 7200 mg/kg dw. The results indicated aged contaminants but the rate of degradation was generally very slow. The concentrations of the compounds decreased with increase in distance from the burial points. There were variations in the distribution of the compounds among the sampling sites and depths; some showed even distribution or accumulation downwards indicating some risks for groundwater contamination. Key words: Buried pesticides, soil, Tanzania.

Allometric models for prediction of above- and belowground biomass of trees in the miombo woodlands of Tanzania

Miombo woodland is a significant forest type occupying about 9% of the African land area and forms a dominant vegetation type in many southeastern African countries including Tanzania.Quantification of the amount of carbon stored in forests presently is an important component in the implementation of the emerging carbon credit market mechanisms. This calls for appropriate allometric models predicting biomass which currently are scarce. The aim of this study was to develop above- and belowground allometric general and site-specific models for trees in miombo woodland. The data were collected from four sites in Tanzania and covers a wide range of conditions and tree sizes (diameters at breast height from 1.1 to 110cm). Above- and belowground biomass models were developed from 167 and 80 sample trees, respectively. The model fitting showed that large parts of the variation (up to 97%) in biomass were explained by diameter at breast height and tree height. Since including tree height only marginally increased the explanation of the biomass variation (from 95% to 96–97% for aboveground biomass), the general recommendation is to apply the models with diameter at breast height only as an independent variable. The results also showed that the general models can be applied over a wide range of conditions in Tanzania. The comparison with previously developed models revealed that these models can probably also be applied for miombo woodland elsewhere in southeastern Africa if not used beyond the tree size range of the model data.

High level of resistance in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae to pyrethroid insecticides and reduced susceptibility to bendiocarb in north-western Tanzania

BackgroundTo control malaria in Tanzania, two primary vector control interventions are being scaled up: long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS). The main threat to effective malaria control is the selection of insecticide resistance. While resistance to pyrethroids, the primary insecticide used for LLINs and IRS, has been reported among mosquito vectors in only a few sites in Tanzania, neighbouring East African countries are recording increasing levels of resistance. To monitor the rapidly evolving situation, the resistance status of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae s.l to different insecticides and the prevalence of the kdr resistance allele involved in pyrethroid resistance were investigated in north-western Tanzania, an area that has been subject to several rounds of pyrethroid IRS since 2006.MethodsHousehold collections of anopheline mosquitoes were exposed to diagnostic dosages of pyrethroid, DDT, and bendiocarb using WHO resistance test kits. The relative proportions of An. gambiae s.s and Anopheles arabiensis were also investigated among mosquitoes sampled using indoor CDC light traps. Anophelines were identified to species and the kdr mutation was detected using real time PCR TaqMan assays.ResultsFrom the light trap collections 80% of An. gambiae s.l were identified as An. gambiae s.s and 20% as An. arabiensis. There was cross-resistance between pyrethroids and DDT with mortality no higher than 40% reported in any of the resistance tests. The kdr-eastern variant was present in homozygous form in 97% of An. gambiae s.s but was absent in An. arabiensis. Anopheles gambiae s.s showed reduced susceptibility to the carbamate insecticide, bendiocarb, the proportion surviving WHO tests ranging from 0% to 30% depending on season and location.ConclusionAnopheles gambiae s.s has developed phenotypic resistance to pyrethroids and DDT and kdr frequency has almost reached fixation. Unlike in coastal Tanzania, where the ratio of An. gambiae s.s to An. arabiensis has decreased in response to vector control, An. gambiae s.s persists at high frequency in north-western Tanzania, probably due to selection of pyrethroid resistance, and this trend is likely to arise in other areas as resistance spreads or is subject to local selection from IRS or LLINs.

Effect of Gangue Minerals on Hydrophobic Recovery of Gold

In this paper, the effect of gangue minerals on the hydrophobic recovery of gold is being investigated using ores obtained from the active small scale gold mining sites in Tanzania. Gold ores of different gangue contents were tested. The effects of silica gangue and high sulphide gangue on gold attachment were examined including the effect of surface activators (potassium amyl xanthate) and the possibility of depressing the effects of gangue using reagents. The results were evaluated in terms of gold recovery, volumes and grade of concentrates formed. There was no change in gold recoveries when the amount of oxide gangue (quartz) in the ore was increased, indicating absence of competition between gold and quartz gangue. High sulphide contents in the ore above 6% reduced gold recoveries considerably. It was noted that potassium amyl xanthate surfactants increased the attachment of both gold and the sulphide gangue. Using lime at pH 10 it was possible to depress the sulphide gangue which is mainly pyrite and hence increased gold recoveries considerably.

Treponema pallidum infection in the wild baboons of East Africa: distribution and genetic characterization of the strains responsible.

It has been known for decades that wild baboons are naturally infected with Treponema pallidum, the bacterium that causes the diseases syphilis (subsp. pallidum), yaws (subsp. pertenue), and bejel (subsp. endemicum) in humans. Recently, a form of T. pallidum infection associated with severe genital lesions has been described in wild baboons at Lake Manyara National Park in Tanzania. In this study, we investigated ten additional sites in Tanzania and Kenya using a combination of macroscopic observation and serology, in order to determine whether the infection was present in each area. In addition, we obtained genetic sequence data from six polymorphic regions using T. pallidum strains collected from baboons at two different Tanzanian sites. We report that lesions consistent with T. pallidum infection were present at four of the five Tanzanian sites examined, and serology was used to confirm treponemal infection at three of these. By contrast, no signs of treponemal infection were observed at the six Kenyan sites, and serology indicated T. pallidum was present at only one of them. A survey of sexually mature baboons at Lake Manyara National Park in 2006 carried out as part of this study indicated that roughly ten percent displayed T. pallidum-associated lesions severe enough to cause major structural damage to the genitalia. Finally, we found that T. pallidum strains from Lake Manyara National Park and Serengeti National Park were genetically distinct, and a phylogeny suggested that baboon strains may have diverged prior to the clade containing human strains. We conclude that T. pallidum infection associated with genital lesions appears to be common in the wild baboons of the regions studied in Tanzania. Further study is needed to elucidate the infection's transmission mode, its associated morbidity and mortality, and the relationship between baboon and human strains.

Results From the First 30 Months of National Sentinel Surveillance for Influenza in Tanzania, 2008–2010

Limited data exist on the burden of influenza in developing countries. In 2008, in order to better understand the epidemiology of influenza virus infection in Tanzania, the Tanzanian Ministry of Health and Social Welfare created a sentinel surveillance system for influenza. At 5 hospitals across the country, patients with influenza-like illness (ILI) and severe acute respiratory illness (SARI) had oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal samples collected. At the National Influenza Center in Dar es Salaam, specimens were tested for influenza using real-time polymerase chain reaction tests. From May 2008 through November 2010, a total of 1794 samples were collected from 5 sentinel sites, of which 61% were from patients with ILI and 39% were from patients with SARI. Of all ILI and SARI samples, 8.0% were positive for influenza; 6.9% yielded influenza A virus, and 1.1% yielded influenza B virus. Most influenza A virus was subtype H3, which circulated in nearly every month of 2010. The proportion of influenza-positive cases was similar among ILI (8.5%) and SARI (7.3%) patients (P = .39). In multivariate logistic regression, influenza-positive SARI cases were more likely than influenza-negative SARI cases to have had rhonchi (adjusted OR [aOR], 2.31; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.14-4.67), nasal discharge (aOR, 4.57; 95% CI, 1.30-16.10), and stridor (aOR, 2.63; 95% CI, 1.17-5.90). Influenza-positive ILI patients had a longer duration of fever on presentation, compared with influenza-negative ILI patients (median, 4 vs 3 days; P = .004). Otherwise, there was no difference in signs or symptoms among influenza-positive and influenza-negative ILI patients. During 2.5 years of surveillance for influenza at 5 geographically disbursed sites in Tanzania, we found that influenza circulated year-round. Surveillance should continue in order to fully understand the seasonality and epidemiology of influenza in Tanzania.

The Globalization of the Pavement

Abstract This article investigates examples of citizen media production and communication (blogs and social media sites in Tanzania and its diasporas) in the immediate aftermath of the Gongo la Mboto blasts in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, February 2011. At the centre is the relationship between media use and communication practices of the pavement - drawing from the notion of pavement radio - and the spaceship, i.e. a metaphor for traditional mass media, exemplified by policies and practices of the BBC and its World Service. We argue that new social media practices as digital pavement radio are converging with traditional forms of street buzz and media use. Forms of oral communication are adapting towards the digital and filling information voids in an informal economy of news and stories in which media practices are stimulated by already ingrained traditions. An existing oral culture is paving the way for a globalization of the pavement.

Malaria parasite diversity and transmission intensity affect development of parasitological immunity in a mathematical model

BackgroundThe development of parasitological immunity against malaria affects the ability to detect infection, the efficiency of the local human parasite reservoir at infecting mosquitoes, and the response to reintroduction of parasites to previously cleared areas. Observations of similar age-trends in detected prevalence and mean parasitaemia across more than an order-of-magnitude of variation in baseline transmission complicate simple exposure-driven explanations.MethodsMathematical models often employ age-dependent immune factors to match the observed trends, while the present model uses a new detailed mechanistic model of parasite transmission dynamics to explain age-trends through the mechanism of parasite diversity. Illustrative simulations are performed for multiple field sites in Tanzania and Nigeria, and observed age-trends and seasonality in parasite prevalence are recreated in silico, proffering possible mechanistic explanations of the observational data.ResultsObserved temporal dynamics in measured parasitaemia are recreated for each location and age-prevalence outputs are studied. Increasing population-level diversity in malaria surface antigens delays development of broad parasitological immunity. A local parasite population with high diversity can recreate the observed trends in age-prevalence across more than an order of magnitude of variation in transmission intensities.ConclusionsMechanistic models of human immunity and parasite antigen diversity can recreate the observed temporal patterns for the development of parasitological immunity across a wide range of transmission intensities. This has implications for the distribution of disease burden across the population, the human transmission reservoir, design of elimination campaigns, and development and roll-out of potential vaccines.

Routine delivery of artemisinin-based combination treatment at fixed health facilities reduces malaria prevalence in Tanzania: an observational study

BackgroundArtemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) has been promoted as a means to reduce malaria transmission due to their ability to kill both asexual blood stages of malaria parasites, which sustain infections over long periods and the immature derived sexual stages responsible for infecting mosquitoes and onward transmission. Early studies reported a temporal association between ACT introduction and reduced malaria transmission in a number of ecological settings. However, these reports have come from areas with low to moderate malaria transmission, been confounded by the presence of other interventions or environmental changes that may have reduced malaria transmission, and have not included a comparison group without ACT. This report presents results from the first large-scale observational study to assess the impact of case management with ACT on population-level measures of malaria endemicity in an area with intense transmission where the benefits of effective infection clearance might be compromised by frequent and repeated re-infection.MethodsA pre-post observational study with a non-randomized comparison group was conducted at two sites in Tanzania. Both sites used sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) monotherapy as a first-line anti-malarial from mid-2001 through 2002. In 2003, the ACT, artesunate (AS) co-administered with SP (AS + SP), was introduced in all fixed health facilities in the intervention site, including both public and registered non-governmental facilities. Population-level prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum asexual parasitaemia and gametocytaemia were assessed using light microscopy from samples collected during representative household surveys in 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005 and 2006.FindingsAmong 37,309 observations included in the analysis, annual asexual parasitaemia prevalence in persons of all ages ranged from 11% to 28% and gametocytaemia prevalence ranged from <1% to 2% between the two sites and across the five survey years. A multivariable logistic regression model was fitted to adjust for age, socioeconomic status, bed net use and rainfall. In the presence of consistently high coverage and efficacy of SP monotherapy and AS + SP in the comparison and intervention areas, the introduction of ACT in the intervention site was associated with a modest reduction in the adjusted asexual parasitaemia prevalence of 5 percentage-points or 23% (p < 0.0001) relative to the comparison site. Gametocytaemia prevalence did not differ significantly (p = 0.30).InterpretationThe introduction of ACT at fixed health facilities only modestly reduced asexual parasitaemia prevalence. ACT is effective for treatment of uncomplicated malaria and should have substantial public health impact on morbidity and mortality, but is unlikely to reduce malaria transmission substantially in much of sub-Saharan Africa where individuals are rapidly re-infected.

Private Business Investments in Heritage Sites in Tanzania: Recent Developments and Challenges for Heritage Management

Private business investments in heritage sites in Tanzania have recently captured scholarly interest of some archaeologists. Curiosity in the matter has largely emanated from a fundamental need to widen the sites’ utilization through heritage tourism. This paper reviews a recent incident in which a local community explicitly opposed the minister of Natural Resources and Tourism handing over ceremony of Kunduchi ruins site to a private investor. The paper also highlights recent developments, problems in private business investments, and their potential implications to the conservation and management of heritage sites in Tanzania.

The burden of malaria in post-emergency refugee sites: A retrospective study

BackgroundAlmost two-thirds of refugees, internally displaced persons, returnees and other persons affected by humanitarian emergencies live in malaria endemic regions. Malaria remains a significant threat to the health of these populations.MethodsData on malaria incidence and mortality were analyzed from January 2006 to December 2009 from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Health Information System database collected at sites in Burundi, Chad, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand, and Uganda. Data from three countries during 2006 and 2007, and all nine countries from 2008 to 2009, were used to describe trends in malaria incidence and mortality. Monthly counts of malaria morbidity and mortality were aggregated into an annual country rate averaged over the study period.ResultsAn average of 1.18 million refugees resided in 60 refugee sites within nine countries with at least 50 cases of malaria per 1000 refugees during the study period 2008-2009. The highest incidence of malaria was in refugee sites in Tanzania, where the annual incidence of malaria was 399 confirmed cases per 1,000 refugees and 728 confirmed cases per 1,000 refugee children younger than five years. Malaria incidence in children younger than five years of age, based on the sum of confirmed and suspected cases, declined substantially at sites in two countries between 2006 and 2009, but a slight increase was reported at sites within four of seven countries between 2008 and 2009. Annual malaria mortality rates were highest in sites in Sudan (0.9 deaths per 1,000 refugees), Uganda and Tanzania (0.7 deaths per 1000 refugees each). Malaria was the cause of 16% of deaths in refugee children younger than five years of age in all study sites.ConclusionsThese findings represent one of the most extensive reports on malaria among refugees in post-emergency sites. Despite declines in malaria incidence among refugees in several countries, malaria remains a significant cause of mortality among children younger than five years of age. Further progress in malaria control, both within and outside of post-emergency sites, is necessary to further reduce malaria incidence and mortality among refugees and achieve global goals in malaria control and elimination.

Protected area gap analysis of important bird areas in Tanzania

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Health-care worker engagement in HIV-related quality improvement in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

To assess health-care worker (HCW) awareness, interest and engagement in quality improvement (QI) in HIV care sites in Tanzania. Cross-sectional survey distributed in May 2009. Sixteen urban HIV care sites in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 1 year after the introduction of a quality management program. Two hundred seventy-nine HCWs (direct care, clinical support staff and management). HCW perceptions of care delivered, rates of engagement, knowledge and interest in QI. HCW-identified barriers to and facilitators of the delivery of quality HIV care. Two hundred seventy-nine (73%) of 382 HCWs responded to the survey. Most (86%) felt able to meet clients' needs. HCW-identified facilitators of quality included: teamwork (88%), staff communication (79%), positive work environment (75%) and trainings (84%). Perceived barriers included: problems in patients' lives (73%) and too few staff or too high patient volumes (52%). Many HCWs knew about specific QI activities (52%) or had been asked for input on QI (63%), but fewer (40.5%) had participated in activities and only 20.1% were currently QI team members. Managers were more likely to report QI involvement than direct care or clinical support staff (P < 0.01). No difference in QI involvement was seen based on patient load or site type. HCWs can provide important insights into barriers and facilitators of providing quality care and can be effectively engaged in QI activities. HCW participation in efforts to improve services will ensure that HIV/AIDS quality of care is achieved and maintained as countries strive for universal antiretroviral access.

Home range, core areas and movement in the ‘critically endangered’ kipunji (Rungwecebus kipunji) in southwest Tanzania

AbstractUnderstanding how threatened forest primates use a heterogeneous landscape is essential to ensuring their survival. Kipunji (Rungwecebus kipunji) are ‘critically endangered’, arboreal monkeys restricted to two sites in Tanzania. Over 90% of the population lives in the degraded Rungwe‐Kitulo forests of the Southern Highlands. In this study, we present the first comprehensive investigation into daily path length and home range size of kipunji, based on data from four groups followed simultaneously over 70 consecutive days on Mt. Rungwe. The mean daily distance travelled was 1293 m (SE 150.82), and daily distance was not significantly correlated to group size. Using fixed kernel density estimation, an area enclosing 90% of the home range calculated using the ‘reference’ method as a smoothing parameter, measured a mean of 306.18 ha (SE 67), and the core area (50% use) was 86.55 ha (SE 18.73). Using the ‘least‐squares cross validation’ method, the mean home range and core area were 205.45 ha (SE 57.02) and 55.45 ha (SE 14.23) respectively. Home range overlap was extensive, although contact between groups was rare, with &gt;97.30% of all observations within 20 min separated by &gt;250 m. The data strongly suggest that kipunji are not territorial.

Fine-tuning paleoanthropological reconnaissance with high-resolution satellite imagery: the discovery of 28 new sites in Tanzania

IntroductionFossils,artifacts, andtheirgeological settingsaretherawdata ofhuman evolutiondthey evince what actually happened when andwhere,and its ecological context. As such, field research representsthe essential foundation upon which the discipline of paleoan-thropology rests.Many discoveries aremadefromlargeoutcrops ofsedimentary rock in the East African Rift Valley, and researchershave thus concentrated explorations on these extensive exposures(e.g., Omo, Koobi Fora, Olduvai). However, smaller outcrops, wherehuman evolution may also be documented, have received littleattention. Due to fast infrastructure development and rapid pop-ulation growth in East Africa there is an urgent need to implementa research strategy that will increase our ability to identify smallerexposures.We have incorporated high resolution satellite imagery (HRSI)into our survey methodology, greatly improving our ability tosystematically locate and efficiently identify smaller outcrops (e.g.,<10 km

Challenges in malaria control in Sub-Saharan Africa: The vaccine perspective

Malaria is a life-threatening disease of public health importance, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. It is estimated that about 500 million cases of malaria occur annually and among these 1 million die annually. Children below five years and pregnant women are the most vulnerable groups. Several malaria control measures have been applied such as environmental improvements, use of insecticide impregnated nets, residual indoor spraying, early case detection and treatment with effective antimalarial drugs. However, the adaptation of vector and parasite has so far limited the effect of these interventions. The emergence of resistance against drugs and insecticides requires in response a steady stream of new interventions. Up to the beginning of this millennium, most sub-Saharan African countries have been using chloroquine (CQ) as the first-line antimalarial drug, which had to be replaced with sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) after resistant parasites had rendered CQ ineffective. Currently the first line treatment of malaria consists of combination therapy which includes an artemisinin derivative. The current approach appears robust but history has taught us to be alert and to expect resistance to emerge. There is a pressing need to develop and deploy complimentary strategies. Adding a protective vaccine to the existing control tools for malaria holds great promise yet no malaria vaccine has ever been licensed despite a large number of attempts. The complexity of malaria parasites and the ability of the parasite to suppress and evade immune responses are formidable challenges. Fortunately, there are several promising antimalarial vaccine candidates in the development pipeline. The most promising vaccine candidate is RTSS which is currently tested in various countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including two sites in Tanzania. There is a hope that malaria vaccines could be developed and deployed in malaria endemic communities. This article highlights the challenges of developing and deploying malaria vaccines.

Novel use of stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) as a tool for isolation of oviposition site attractants for gravid Culex quinquefasciatus

Mosquitoes such as Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae) are important vectors of organisms that cause disease in humans. Research into the development of effective standardized odour baits for blood-fed females (oviposition attractants), to enable entomological monitoring of vector populations, is hampered by complex protocols for extraction of physiologically active volatile chemicals from natural breeding site water samples, which have produced inconsistent results. Air entrainment and solvent extraction are technically demanding methods and are impractical for use in resource poor environments where mosquito-borne disease is most prevalent. This study reports the first use of a simple, robust extraction technique, stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE), to extract behaviourally active small lipophilic molecules (SLMs) present in water samples collected from Cx. quinquefasciatus breeding sites in Tanzania. Extracts from a pit latrine and from a cess pool breeding site attracted more gravid Cx. quinquefasciatus in pair choice bioassays than control extracts, and coupled gas chromatography-electroantennography (GC-EAG) allowed tentative identification of 15 electrophysiologically active chemicals, including the known oviposition attractant, skatole (3-methylindole). Here, we have demonstrated, using simple pair choice bioassays in controlled laboratory conditions, that SBSE is effective for the extraction of behaviourally and electrophysiologically active semiochemicals from mosquito breeding site waters. Further research is required to confirm that SBSE is an appropriate technique for use in field surveys in the search for oviposition cues for Cx. quinquefasciatus.