Sites Of Special Scientific Interest Research Articles

Recreational Use of the Countryside: No Evidence that High Nature Value Enhances a Key Ecosystem Service

In Western Europe, recreational amenity is presented as an important cultural ecosystem service that, along with other values, helps justify policies to conserve biodiversity. However, whether recreational use by the public is enhanced at protected areas designated for nature conservation is unknown. This is the first study to model outdoor recreation at a national scale, examining habitat preferences with statutory designation (Site of Special Scientific Interest) as an indicator of nature conservation importance. Models were based on a massive, three year national household survey providing spatially-referenced recreational visits to the natural environment. Site characteristics including land cover were compared between these observed visit sites (n = 31,502) and randomly chosen control sites (n = 63,000). Recreationists preferred areas of coast, freshwater, broadleaved woodland and higher densities of footpaths and avoided arable, coniferous woodland and lowland heath. Although conservation designation offers similar or greater public access than undesignated areas of the same habitat, statutory designation decreased the probability of visitation to coastal and freshwater sites and gave no effect for broadleaved woodland. Thus general recreational use by the public did not represent an important ecosystem service of protected high-nature-value areas, so that intrinsic and existence values remain as the primary justifications for conservation of high nature value areas. Management of ‘green infrastructure’ sites of lower conservation value that offer desirable habitats and enhanced provision of footpaths, could mitigate recreational impacts on nearby valuable conservation areas.

Trump in Scotland: A Study of Power‐Topologies and Golf Topographies

AbstractDuring the last decade Trump International Golf Links Scotland (TIGLS) has built on land where no development was previously outlined and, appropriating parts of a Site of Special Scientific Interest, has come to occupy an important place in debates on Scottish planning policy. Though plans were initially rejected in 2007 by the Aberdeenshire planning body responsible, the Scottish Government subsequently rescaled the decision—instead approving the proposed high‐end, large‐scale golf resort. Besides numerous clashes with those living close to TIGLS, this has since led to highly visible protests. In this article I scrutinize TIGLS's establishment to explore the entanglements of topological and topographic understandings of space, and to illuminate power exerted through various modalities by various private and public actors. Based on interviews with politicians, activists, planners, residents and business representatives and an analysis of planning documents, developer–state communications, and marketing material, I argue that work on power‐topologies and relational geographies has much to offer. But, crucially, this work simultaneously risks underplaying the role material landscapes play in conflicts over planning policy and the power exerted to dominate such landscapes. Thus, emphasizing topology proves insufficient unless coupled with a focus on the power involved in appropriating and reshaping material topographies.

Conserving classic geological sections in the Inferior Oolite Formation, Middle Jurassic of the Wessex Basin, south-west England

Over 200 years since the publication of William Smith's 1815 geological map, we explore the conservation of the Inferior Oolite Formation including Dundry Hill in Somerset which was visited by, and critical to Smith's work. In particular, the network of nationally important Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) that encompass the Middle Jurassic Aalenian-Bajocian sequence in the Wessex Basin are considered. A number of examples of conserving disused Inferior Oolite quarries are used to illustrate these challenges and benefits of geoconservation, including Frogden Quarry SSSI and Horn Park Quarry National Nature Reserve (NNR) in Dorset, and South Main Road Quarry SSSI on Dundry Hill. This paper briefly reflects on John Callomon's critical contribution to understanding the Inferior Oolite Formation, and the shared challenge faced by William Smith and John Callomon.

A peculiar bored crinoid from Salthill Quarry, Clitheroe, Lancashire (Mississippian; Tournaisian), UK

Salthill Quarry, Clitheroe, Lancashire, is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and important for its Mississippian (Tournaisian, Chadian) crinoids. A pluricolumnal, Pentagonocyclicus ? (col.) sp., preserves multiple pits, Oichnus paraboloides Bromley. Pits on one side of the specimen sit atop cyst-like structures and infested the crinoid when it was alive; the protuberances represent a growth reaction. At the time, the column was either upright, pits concentrating on one side presumably in response to current direction, or recumbent (and distal). Pits on the other side engendered no growth reactions; the crinoid was dead and lying on the sea floor when infested. The infestation of the live crinoid must be considered ectoparasitic.

Habitat Modelling for Conservation Analysis using GIS and Remote Sensing in Lantau Island, Hong Kong

Knowledge of spatial distribution of faunal species is crucial to prioritize conservation resources. While vulnerable or endangered species are usually well-protected, common species were always overlooked. Traditional survey represented species distribution by discrete points, which is precise but often limited in applicability for conservation analysis. This study combined remote sensing; geographical information analytical tools and well-established multivariate statistical modelling to predict habitats of fifty common and representative animal species. Reliable ground data records from terrestrial biodiversity survey were collected and ecological niche factor analysis was used to identify pseudo-absence sites essential for habitat statistical models. Binary logistic regression models and generalized additive models were used to predict the faunal habitats. Species-richness map was then produced to identify biodiversity hotspots and possible conservation gaps of the current conservation system. Results from gap analysis showed that only 1% of faunal species richness hotspots coincided with existing protected sites of special scientific interest (SSSI). 45% of species-rich sites were under-protected. The results not only identified deficiency of existing protection system, where extra conservation planning efforts should be considered, but also highlighted the direction for future development to minimize the land use conflicts. Integration of geoinformatics and statistical analysis with ecological knowledge assist timely conservation policy making.

Fate of semi-natural grassland in England between 1960 and 2013: A test of national conservation policy

It is well documented that significant losses in semi-natural grassland occurred across Europe during the second half of the twentieth century. However, comparatively few studies have investigated and quantified the fate of large numbers of individual grassland areas. This is important for understanding the causes of decline, and consequently establishing new policies to conserve and restore lost habitats. This study addresses this problem; GIS was used to compare historic survey data collected between 1960 and 1981 with two contemporary spatial datasets of habitats in England. The datasets included the Priority Habitats Inventory 2013 and the Land Cover Map 2007 and this was undertaken for different types of semi-natural grassland across England. Considerable decreases occurred across the different grassland types, with a loss of 47% of studied semi-natural grasslands sites in England over 32–53 years. Of this, the majority of grassland was lost to conversion to agriculturally-improved grassland or arable cultivation, 45% and 43% respectively. Changes to woodland and urban areas were also evident, but on a much smaller scale. Sites receiving statutory protection as a Site of Special Scientific Interest were found to have retained more grassland (91%), compared with non-protected sites (27%), thus highlighting the effectiveness of this aspect of current conservation policy in England, and the need for this to continue in the future.

The reconstruction of Moss Canal Bridge, Rochdale, UK

Moss Canal Bridge carries Moss Bridge Road across the Rochdale Canal in Rochdale, UK. The Rochdale Canal is designated as a site of special scientific Interest (SSSI) and a special area of conservation (SAC), as well as being used by leisure craft. The original bridge was a reinforced concrete two pinned portal structure built in 1940. The deck had deteriorated and required replacement. A new lightweight fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) bridge deck was selected for the new bridge so that the substructures and foundations of the present bridge could be retained. This was done to avoid and minimise any disturbance to the canal and its status as a SSSI and SAC. The new bridge was designed using Eurocodes but adopting the principles given in BD 90/05 and the EuroComp design handbook. This paper will describe the background and constraints that influenced the design decisions. The design of the new FRP deck will be considered together with the construction of the new bridge in a sensitive location.

Ecological conditions of ponds situated on blast furnace slag deposits located in South Gare Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), Teesside, UK.

Slag, a by-product from the iron and steel industry, has a range of applications within construction and is used in wastewater treatment. Historically considered a waste material, little consideration was given to the environmental impacts of its disposal. South Gare (a Site of Special Scientific Interest) located at the mouth of the Tees estuary, UK, formed on slag deposits used to create a sea wall and make the land behind permanent. Over time, ponds formed in depressions with the water chemistry, being significantly impacted by the slag deposits. Calcium levels reached 504mg/L, nitrate 49.0mg/L and sulphate 1,698mg/L. These levels were also reflected in the composition of the sediment. pH (5.10-9.90) and electrical conductivity (2,710-3,598µS/cm) were variable but often notably high. Pb, Cu and Cd were not present within the water, whilst Zn ranged from 0.027 to 0.37mg/L. Heavy metal levels were higher in surface sediments. Zinc was most dominant (174.3-1,310.2mg/L) followed by Pb (9.9-431mg/L), Cu (8.4-41.8mg/L) and Cd (0.4-1.1mg/L). A sediment core provided a historical overview of the ponds. The ponds were unfavourable for aquatic biodiversity and unsuitable for drinking water abstraction.

The management of offshore islands for nature conservation: the outer Outer Hebrides

Of the 52 Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, 12 are separated from the main islands at high tide. Within these 12 sites, only one of which (St Kilda) has any human inhabitants, there are a further eight islands or groups of islands more than 2 km apart, so that within the Outer Hebrides, there are - for practical purposes - 20 separate offshore designated sites requiring survey, monitoring and management input. This presents challenges of resource allocation and logistics for the small team of conservation staff based within the two Outer Hebrides offices of Scottish Natural Heritage, Scotland’s statutory nature conservation agency. There are also challenges for the other agencies and managers involved in these sites, which in some cases allow the pooling of resources, but in others, lead to new sets of problems with conservation implications. These problems are discussed and reviewed with regard to future management and the obligations placed on Scottish Natural Heritage.

Inside Mid-Triassic fluvial deposits: a legacy of mining sediment-hosted ore bodies in Cheshire, UK

In the Cheshire Basin the Mid-Triassic Helsby Sandstone Formation includes deposits of fluvial and aeolian origin. Sedimentological details of these deposits are commonly obscured in weathered outcrops but can be studied in unweathered sections in disused mines at the Alderley Edge Geological Site of Special Scientific Interest in northeast Cheshire. Fining-upward cycles seen in the fluvial units comprise channel-fill deposits that rest on an erosion surface, grade upwards from conglomerate to fine sandstone and are overlain by mudstones that underwent erosion at the initiation of the next cycle. The mudstone components of some cycles remain in parts of the mines but others were eroded completely and are now represented by concentrations of intraclasts in the succeeding cycle. Mudstone beds and those containing intraclasts formed complete and partial barriers to fluid movement respectively. Their effect on the migration and accumulation of intrastratal fluids is reflected by the form and disposition of voids left by the mining of ore bodies hosted by this facies. A corollary is that if the voids are interpreted as representing hydrocarbon accumulations, rather than ore bodies, reservoir situations analogous to those in the Helsby Sandstone in comparable structures in the East Irish Sea Basin may be viewed from a unique internal perspective.

Conserving freshwater biodiversity: The value, status and management of high quality ditch systems

Freshwater biodiversity is globally threatened and while most conservation efforts are focussed on natural and larger freshwater systems such as rivers and lakes, in many lowland agricultural landscapes artificial water bodies including ditches may be equally important as habitats for freshwater species. Ditches occur across the agricultural landscape but in particular, those associated with coastal and floodplain grazing marsh, have high conservation value. The importance of this habitat for rare and threatened species afforded priority status under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan is explored. The characteristics of ditches that have high conservation value are described and a set of targets against which such ditches can be assessed are presented. An analysis of the current condition of Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) for the wider coastal and floodplain grazing marsh habitat demonstrates the range of pressures affecting these sites and highlights that alongside generic freshwater issues such as eutrophication and non-native species, these sites have a unique set of pressures associated with their ongoing management and the vulnerable location of many sites at the coast. Wider conservation strategies for freshwater biodiversity in lowland landscapes across Europe need to factor in the different management requirements of artificial habitats such as ditches alongside more ambitious restoration projects for natural waterbodies. In low lying coastal areas the threat of coastal squeeze for many important grazing marshes will require a strategic approach to allow upstream migration of important biodiversity.

Three centuries of open access to the caves in Stoney Middleton Dale Site of Special Scientific Interest, Derbyshire

Abstract The limestone caves of Stoney Middleton Dale are a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) for features of geological interest, but have been open access since at least the eighteenth century and have a documented history of geotourism. Using the examples of Carlswark Cavern and Merlin Cavern, this chapter sets out evidence that 300 years of open access has resulted in significant disturbance to the features of geological interest. In particular, the integrity of the overall site for scientific research was affected by historical removal of speleothem formations long before it became a SSSI, with damage still occurring today. As most cave SSSIs in Derbyshire have historically had similar open-access arrangements, the examples presented highlight that there is potential for the integrity of less well historically documented caves elsewhere to have been disturbed. This article highlights the importance of establishing a baseline of historical disturbance to recognize whether the integrity of cave SSSIs have been affected and help monitor if disturbance is still occurring. For cave SSSIs to be useful for geological research, it is suggested that there is a need for the historical legacy of open access to individual caves elsewhere to be better understood.

Diatomological aspects of the Fenn’s and Whixall Mosses complex (Shropshire, UK)

Abstract Peat bogs are unique and important habitats for biodiversity at the species and ecosystem level where low pH of water plays a major role. The main objective of the present study was to compare the benthic diatom assemblage structure of the selected part of the Fenn’s and Whixall Mosses complex in order to verify whether selected sampling sites differ from each other. The complex is a cut-over, lowland raised mire, which is a National Nature Reserve (NNR) and a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). Altogether 92 diatom species were identified in 72 benthic samples collected between September 2008 and August 2009 from six selected sampling sites. Statistical cluster analysis was used to classify diatom samples and to observe the structure of diatom assemblages. The results of this analysis grouped the data set into 3 clusters with 24 samples from each of the two sampling sites in one cluster. Such a clear division shows that pH of water has an impact on the species composition, the richness and diversity of benthic diatom assemblages.

Synergies between site protection and agri‐environment schemes for the conservation of waders on lowland wet grasslands

Two conservation strategies have been put in place in Europe to address precipitous population declines of wading birds that breed on lowland wet grasslands. These are site protection and agri‐environment schemes (AESs) and the two are rarely compared, or their synergy assessed. Increasingly, efforts to recover populations of previously widespread species follow a landscape‐scale approach whereby habitat improvement takes place at key sites through partially overlapping protected area management and AESs. To investigate whether site protection and AESs improve the conservation status of breeding waders and how these interact, we partially repeated a 2002 survey of breeding waders on protected areas (nature reserves and Sites of Special Scientific Interest) and sites with wader‐specific AES options in England in 2009 and 2010. We then assessed the individual and combined effects of these delivery mechanisms on field occupancy, breeding density and population change of four species of declining wader (Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus, Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Eurasian Curlew Arquata numenius and Common Redshank Tringa totanus). Although results for Curlew differed from the other species, in general field occupancy was positively influenced by conservation delivery mechanisms, with the highest occupancy and breeding densities on land where site protection was combined with wader‐specific AES options. Field occupancy varied between different types of AES, with higher occupancy associated with higher‐level options in fields, particularly those on nature reserves. Outside nature reserves, the history of AES management did not influence wader populations, but within nature reserves and on fields that gained AES management between 2002 and 2009–2010, populations of Curlew and Snipe were more likely to have persisted and population change in Snipe and Lapwing was more positive. We conclude that the conservation of breeding waders will be most effective when site protection and AES management are combined on the same land. Using limited AES money to support management for breeding waders on, around and between the existing network of protected sites will protect remaining populations while presenting opportunities for population expansion in future.

Rebalancing the philosophy of river conservation

Enduring themes The essential case for river conservation has been recognized for at least five decades. Here in the UK, even in the dark wartime days of 1941, a UK conference had already discussed the role of ‘nature preservation in post-war reconstruction’ (Sheail, 1995). The 1949 ‘National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act’ followed, creating the opportunity for National Nature Reserves and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) where ‘fauna and flora’ would be protected. In the 1970s, the Nature Conservancy Council’s Derek Ratcliffe used objective criteria to identify several British rivers that merited notification as SSSIs under what was to become the 1981 Wildlife and Countryside Act (Ratcliffe, 1977). Other nations have their own versions of these developments. By 1992, Aquatic Conservation’s current freshwater editor, Phil Boon, was able to propose that the general IUCN aims of conservation should be applied to rivers in order maintain ecological processes for life-support, preserve genetic diversity, and ensure that species and ecosystems were utilized sustainably (Boon, 1992). In the wake of pressures from habitat modification, invasive species, pollution, climate change and exploitation, and at scales ranging from the channel or river corridor to the whole catchment and beyond, he argued for a science-led approach to conservation through which the best remaining examples of river ecosystems would be preserved. Those rivers inevitably affected by human use could be safeguarded partly by management that limited or mitigated damage, and ultimately restored as far as possible. Somewhere in here was the maxim: ‘protect the best, restore the rest’. By the 1980s, the fundamental science to underpin the conservation case was well founded, and indeed has been bolstered progressively over at least 50 years. While the ecological science of rivers is now diverse and complex, the key conservation applications are relatively straightforward. First, physical, chemical and biological elements in river ecosystems interact profoundly to create their structure, dynamics and processes (Vaughan et al., 2009). Maintaining spatial variations in these factors is important to river biodiversity, as are natural variations through time associated with the hydrological cycle (Ward, 1998). Second, the character and variety of rivers is linked inextricably to the context created by the interplay among water, land and atmosphere in river catchments (Hynes, 1975). These natural units both define rivers through hydrologically defined flow-paths, and differentiate among them by forming the boundaries that have probably been critical to the divergence of organisms and the evolution of freshwater biodiversity. The conservation relevance

Preserving Oman's geological heritage: proposal for establishment of World Heritage Sites, National GeoParks and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)

Abstract The Oman Mountains contain a number of unique and very special geological sites of World Heritage importance. Large-scale developments in Oman and UAE have already affected some of these sites and it is now crucial to preserve these sites for posterity in law before urban development destroys them forever. This paper outlines the geological importance of 50 sites as National GeoParks and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). Three geological sites in Oman are so unique and so special that they warrant World Heritage status: the Semail Ophiolite, the world's largest, best exposed and most complete ophiolite; Jebel al-Akhdar; and the Musandam peninsula. Other world-class sites include the Sifah eclogites, the Oman Exotics, Majlis al-Jinn, sites of ‘Snowball Earth’ significance and many others. All these sites are of World Heritage quality and fundamental geological importance, not only for Oman but also for the world. The total acreage of all these GeoPark sites is <10% of Oman and the areas designated have little or no commercial value. The GeoParks will have long-lasting economic benefits as the post-oil and gas economy of Oman will have to rely on tourism and geo-tourism.

Spatial analysis of agri-environmental policy uptake and expenditure in Scotland

Agri-environment is one of the most widely supported rural development policy measures in Scotland in terms of number of participants and expenditure. It comprises 69 management options and sub-options that are delivered primarily through the competitive ‘Rural Priorities scheme’. Understanding the spatial determinants of uptake and expenditure would assist policy-makers in guiding future policy targeting efforts for the rural environment. This study is unique in examining the spatial dependency and determinants of Scotland's agri-environmental measures and categorised options uptake and payments at the parish level. Spatial econometrics is applied to test the influence of 40 explanatory variables on farming characteristics, land capability, designated sites, accessibility and population. Results identified spatial dependency for each of the dependent variables, which supported the use of spatially-explicit models. The goodness of fit of the spatial models was better than for the aspatial regression models. There was also notable improvement in the models for participation compared with the models for expenditure. Furthermore a range of expected explanatory variables were found to be significant and varied according to the dependent variable used. The majority of models for both payment and uptake showed a significant positive relationship with SSSI (Sites of Special Scientific Interest), which are designated sites prioritised in Scottish policy. These results indicate that environmental targeting efforts by the government for AEP uptake in designated sites can be effective. However habitats outside of SSSI, termed here the ‘wider countryside’ may not be sufficiently competitive to receive funding in the current policy system.

Botanical records and their role in shaping nature conservation priorities and actions – an English perspective

AbstractThe species distribution maps in the Atlas of the British Flora (1962) had a profound impact on the development of nature conservation policies and priorities in Britain. Many lists of ‘important species’ used by conservationists today have their origins in these maps. Selection criteria for Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) make considerable use of such lists, with 573 SSSIs in England notified for one or more named vascular plant species or for assemblages of nationally rare and scarce plants. A review of the SSSI series in England is underway, while SSSI selection guidelines for vascular plants are in the process of being revised. The SSSI review aims to identify where amendments to existing SSSIs are needed and to propose new sites, where necessary, to fill gaps in the current series. Botanical records are critically important to this review, as they are to the monitoring of vascular plants on SSSIs and other protected sites, and to targeting and assessing the effectiveness of agri-e...

A combined geochemical and hydrological approach for understanding macronutrient sources

This study employed complementary geochemical techniques and distributed hydrological modelling to investigate multiple sources of catchment macronutrients and characterise their changes in contrasting storm and baseflow conditions. This approach was demonstrated for the Beult catchment in the county of Kent (England), a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) indentified as failing to meet water quality standards for key nutrients under the Water Framework Directive. Significant changes in nutrient stoichiometry and bioavailability are observed for surface waters under contrasting flow regimes. Soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentrations are approximately twice as high during baseflow compared to high flow, while the inverse is true for particulate, colloidal and dissolved hydrolysable phosphorus, dissolved organic carbon and nitrate. Nitrogen (N):phosphorus (P) ratios are lower during baseflow for most surface waters impacted by diffuse sources of pollution. Fluorescence indices of dissolved organic matter (DOM) show that waste water inputs may be locally important sources of more complex low molecular weight DOM, particularly during baseflow. Nitrate N and O isotope signatures, combined with other dissolved chemical tracers, confirm the dominance of wastewater N inputs at sites downsteam of sewerage treatment works during baseflow, with a shift towards the soil N pool in surface waters across the catchment during high flow. Distributed hydrological modelling using the Grid-to-Grid model reveal areas with the greatest runoff also export higher N and P concentrations, and hence deliver a greater flux of macronutrients, while forested areas with low nutrient concentrations reduce runoff and nutrient fluxes. During periods of high runoff, nested sampling indicates that nutrient fluxes scale with catchment area. This combined approach enables a more thorough assessment of the macronutrient sources and dynamics, better informing management options in nutrient impacted catchments.

Establishing an Ecologically Coherent Network of Marine Protected Areas in English Waters: What Does the Designation of Marine Conservation Zones under the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 Add to the Picture?

Establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) is a key conservation strategy to safeguard marine biodiversity from anthropogenic pressures. Designing MPAs is, however, not a simple task due to the complexity and fluidity of marine social-ecological environments. How best can we plan MPAs in such environments with no well-defined social and natural boundaries and in a way that is procedurally just? This article attempts to consider these issues, focusing on the ongoing UK legal efforts in establishing an ecologically coherent network of MPAs under section 123 of the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009. The network is to be made up of European marine sites, Ramsar sites, the marine component of Sites of Special Scientific Interest and marine conservation zones (MCZs), a new type of MPA established under section 116 of the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009. The designation criteria of MCZs are considered in detail and compared with those of other marine protected sites to understand what MCZs are adding to existing MPAs designated under European and international law. The article also grounds the legal discussion by critically considering the ongoing implementation of the MCZs' designation.