Site Formation Processes Research Articles

Site formation process of the Dadong Paleolithic site in Jilin province, China: A geoarchaeological approach

The Dadong site, located in the Changbaishan region of Jilin province, China, is an important Upper Paleolithic site characterized by its large distribution area and abundant stone artifacts. This study presents a geoarchaeological study of a newly excavated area of this site. Soil micromorphology, particle size analysis, and pH measurements were used to reconstruct the site formation process from around 60 ka to the present. Additionally, this study examines the impact of volcanic eruptions and local geomorphology on ancient human adaptation in this area. This paper also investigates the effects of post-depositional processes, particularly freeze-thaw, on the distribution of lithics. This study is the first soil micromorphological study of a Paleolithic site in Northeast China, and is important for studying the changes of the Pleistocene environment in this region as well as the development of microblade technology in Northeast Asia.

Ballasting a Mid-19th Century Chilean Navy Armed Transport: Archaeometallurgical Insights into Cast Iron Ingots Recovered from the Barque Infatigable (1855)

Ballast is essential for vessels to lower their centre of gravity, improve stability, and ease their motion during sailing. During the modern period, heavy materials used for ballasting ships were an issue of particular concern for both authorities and ship owners, subjected to increasing control, regulation, and standardisation. These items represent a very common find in wreck sites and deserve special attention, as their characteristics, distribution, and provenance can deliver critical information for assessing where the vessel was ballasted, sailing routes, ship tonnage, and site formation processes. This article is centred on pig iron ingots, introduced in the early 18th century in sailing warships and shortly thereafter in sizeable merchant vessels, a type of ballast which is frequently overlooked in archaeological research. In particular, specimens retrieved from the Chilean Navy armed transport Infatigable (1855) were analysed through macroscopic and physicochemical characterisation using LM, SEM-EDS, WD-XRF, and IGF. The results obtained indicate the ingots were manufactured with cast iron of different quality, suggesting they may have come from different production centres. The investigation resulted in a better understanding of ballasting practices on a South American navy ship in the early post-independence period and provided new data for discussions of off-site and non-nautical technological issues, such as the materials, knowledge, and techniques associated with the production of pig iron in the mid-19th century.

Highland pastoralism in the Early Bronze Age Kura-Araxes cultural tradition: Stable oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotope analyses of herd mobility at Köhne Shahar in northwestern Iran

Nomadic pastoralism and long-distance transhumance are often invoked as primary explanatory mechanisms for human migrations and regional interactions in the Early Bronze Age Kura-Araxes cultural tradition of the West Asian highlands. Based on established archaeological proxies of pastoralism, these arguments have rendered homogenous reconstructions of a complex pastoral landscape because of the effect of site formation processes that smooth out diagnostic archaeological signatures of diverse herd mobility strategies. Overcoming this equifinality requires an interdisciplinary approach that can empirically measure animal movements in the past. In this paper we use stable oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotope analyses of incrementally-sampled teeth to investigate sheep, goat, and cattle herding strategies at the Kura-Araxes settlement of Köhne Shahar. Our δ18O analysis reveals that cattle and caprines accessed different water sources, with cattle staying closer to the settlement and the more permanent bodies of water that it provided. Restricted intra-annual ranges in δ13C values also show that nearly all herd animals were managed locally, involving limited transhumance that was supplemented with dry foddering. We contextualise our observations with published zooarchaeological data to call for more nuanced interpretations of Kura-Araxes pastoral landscapes that deemphasise the role of long-distance pastoral mobilities.

Geoarchaeology at the marine waterfront of a coastal urban center: Human activities and sea-land interface processes on the Late Bronze and early Iron Age coast of Tel Dor, Israel

Geoarchaeological research at coastal urban sites in the Levant focused until recently on two research directions: the identification of ancient harbors and the study of occupation deposits in settlement portions that are located well above sea level (i.e., 'dry' excavations). Here we present a geoarchaeological study of the southern maritime waterfront of Tel Dor following a coastal excavation at an elevation that is close to current sea level. The research addresses stratigraphic relationships between underwater, coastal and fully terrestrial architectural features (wall remains) and these provide the context for deposits found within the site's perimeter. These coastal deposits were then studied using sediment micromorphology as well as stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis. Three depositional units have been identified. The lower was found to be coastal deposits earlier than the Iron Age IB (Ir1b, 11-10th c. BCE). The middle unit is an ash deposit containing pottery and bone refuse dating to the Ir1b, probably a town dump, that became indurated due to sea level rise and resembles beachrock. The upper unit is composed of tell occupation deposits, including phytolith-rich layers and evidence for wood ash and compacted livestock dung as in stabling deposits. The latter, dated to the Ir1b – Ir2a (i.e. up-to and including the 9th c. BCE), reflects dumped refuse and livestock keeping in a terrestrial (i.e. non-marine) environment. Overall, this study provides initial insights into site formation processes and human activities at Dor's maritime interface during the Iron Age.

Abrigo 1, Cerro El Sombrero: An Early Site in Eastern Argentina

ABSTRACT Late Pleistocene human occupations are well represented in the Tandilia Range, Argentine Pampas. Abrigo 1 is a small shelter in close relation to the main and better-known site on the hilltop of Cerro El Sombrero, with both sites including Fishtail points. The oldest levels at the shelter dated to 13,000–12,000 calendar years ago and yielded two Fishtail points. This paper deals with the analysis of the sedimentary context, stratigraphy, artifact distribution, and site formation processes at Abrigo 1. The sedimentary record is dominantly composed of geogenic sediments with a minor participation of anthropogenic material, mainly lithic artifacts. The geogenic input includes sediments coming from the physical and chemical weathering of the rockshelter’s quartzites and windblown sediments. Pedogenesis is the prevailing site formation process. Artifact distribution, the homogeneity of the assemblage, and refitting are considered relevant to assess site integrity. The results are compared to other early cultural contexts of the immediate vicinity.

The Urban Biography of a Mauritanian City: Microstratigraphic Analysis of the Eastern Quarter of Tamuda (Morocco)

The lack of vertical stratigraphic sondages and open area excavations constitutes a challenge to understanding Mauritanian urbanism. This makes the characterization of the spatio-temporal evolution of Mauritanian towns a difficult task. Systematic excavations carried out in Tamuda by several research teams in the twentieth century provided vertical and horizontal views of Mauritanian urbanism. Our study offers, for the first time, a high-resolution geoarchaeological analysis of Tamuda’s urban sequence (third through first century BC). The microfacies analysis, by means of micromorphology and µ-XRF of Spaces E18 and E20 of the Eastern Quarter revealed a complex interaction of deposits and site formation processes that resulted from changes in everyday urban life. In this respect, the overlap of different construction phases and the alternation of episodes of active use and abandonment is highly significant. This study examines the functional characterization of urban spaces, including the identification of midden activities, a roasting pit, and a milling site (possibly) linked to fish flour production. These activities leave traces on beaten floors and occupation surfaces, and several features indicate abandonment periods between short-term occupations. The result is a complex urban biography of this Mauritanian town, in which human occupation was not constant over time.

Climatic shifts, geomorphic change, ancient routes of migration and adaption in southwestern China: Site formation processes at Luojiaba, Sichuan Province

AbstractArchaeologists frequently invoke climate change as a driving cause for ancient expansions of human populations, but geomorphic changes can also play an important role in opening or closing routes of migration. In China, archaeological evidence demonstrates that valleys in the Jialing River's watershed were important routes for the movement of Neolithic populations from the catchments of the Yellow River to the Yangtze River. Here, we examine how fluvial geomorphological regime shifts may have also influenced the migration pathways and adaptive strategies of Neolithic people into the Sichuan Basin by using a combination of sedimentological and palynological analysis at Luojiaba, an archaeological site located on one of the eastern tributaries of the Jialing River. The results show that people settled on seasonally stable landforms, including the Zhonghe River floodplain at Luojiaba (5300–4800 cal. B.P.). They carried out fishing and hunting activities on the front edge of the floodplain close to the river channel and built dwelling features on the higher ground at the back edge of the floodplain, which was not affected by seasonal floods. We hypothesize that during the Holocene Climatic Optimum before 5500 cal. B.P., high water levels as well as severe surface erosion caused by a strong East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) blocked pathways into the upper reaches of the Jialing River watershed. Only after a series of cold, dry climate events driven by a decrease in EASM intensity ca. 5500–5000 cal. B.P. did water levels recede significantly. This allowed alluvial aggradation to occur, which created floodplains and terraces along the valley that may have opened a new route for the migration into the Sichuan Basin. Our results reveal the human–environment dynamics surrounding Luojiaba in the uplands of southwestern China and highlight the impact of coupled climatic‐geomorphic regime shifts on human settlement and subsistence strategies, across both space and time.

Agent-based modelling for the study of shipwreck site formation processes: A theoretical framework and conceptual model.

Background Shipwreck site formation processes (SFP), their dynamics and transformation have long interested maritime archaeology from both a historical perspective and heritage management since shipwrecks constitute endangered cultural sites. Major contributions to shipwreck SFP have been made since the 1970s which conceive SFP from a systemic theoretical perspective, notably those of Keith Muckelroy and Martin Gibbs. However, to our view, such a perspective falls short in its capacity to explain and predict the distribution of elements in a shipwreck. In this article, we propose that shipwreck SFP can be understood from the theoretical framework of complex adaptive systems (CAS), where a SFP constitutes a CAS in which nonlinear interactions of natural and cultural factors give rise to the observed seabed distribution of a shipwreck as an emergent phenomenon. Methods From this theoretical framework, we propose agent-based modelling (ABM) as a suitable methodological approach for studying SFP. We show its implementation using the USS Somers, a 19th-century brig of war that sank in 1846 off the port of Veracruz, Mexico, during the Mexican-American War as a case study. The conceptual model was developed from the integration of historical data about the ship’s nautical characteristics and operation, information on the wrecking event from eyewitnesses, as well as modern environmental data. Results We present a conceptual model defining various elements that would constitute the Somers’ ABM. It gives specifics about the characteristics and variables regarding agents, global variables, processes, indicators, degradation and deposition sequences, and user interface. Conclusion The conceptual model served to develop ABM in a simulation platform where historical hypotheses can be tested and various possible scenarios of the SFP can be explored. By contrasting the simulation results with the archaeological record of the shipwreck, ABM would allow maritime archaeologists to postulate more supported and refined interpretations of a shipwreck’s SFP.

Developing an agent-based model for studying shipwreck site formation processes.

Developing an agent-based model for studying shipwreck site formation processes.

Site formation processes at Cenjiawan (Nihewan Basin, North China): a case study on the structure of the Early Pleistocene archaeological record in lakeshore environments

ABSTRACTLakeshore environments offer an excellent opportunity to explore how early humans adapted to changing landscapes and environments. The Nihewan fluvio‐lacustrine sequence in North China contains one of the densest concentrations of Early Pleistocene Palaeolithic sites outside of Africa. Among these, the Cenjiawan site, dated at 1.1 Ma, draws attention due to the large number of stone tool refits. We present here Cenjiawan's sedimentary context, artefact spatial patterns, size distribution and taphonomic features, which are complemented by an experimental programme to better understand archaeological debitage size patterns, thus enabling a detailed analysis of formation processes at the site. The Cenjiawan assemblage is also interpreted in the light of its geographical and geological context, where a synsedimentary fault induced a minor topographic relief across the lacustrine lakeshore. This resulted in a shallow‐water setting in the down‐thrown hanging wall of the fault compartment, and a fluvial environment in the uplifted footwall. Our results indicate that Cenjiawan, situated in the hanging wall of the fault, underwent minimal disturbance, constituting a remarkable example of optimal preservation of archaeological assemblages in Early Pleistocene lakeshore environments.

Formation processes and spatial patterning in a late prehistoric complex cave in northern Israel informed by SLAM-based LiDAR

A SLAM-based Zeb Horizon LiDAR system is used for high-resolution 3D mapping of Har Sifsof Cave (HSC) in the Upper Galilee, northern Israel. Located within a dense karst province, HSC is a subterranean system featuring a composite morphology, the result of prolonged aging processes of a large hypogenic chamber. With a total length of 518 m, it is one of the largest caves in the Galilee district. The cave contains diverse archeological remains from the early fifth millennium BCE associated with ritual activities. In the current project the scanned point cloud contains over 884 million measured points, captured in two days along 10 scanning routes. One scan was conducted by a drone recording surface topography above the cave, and nine scans were conducted manually, carrying the scanner through the cave, with an average of 1850 points per m2, and measurement accuracy of 10 cm. We address the cave 3D documentation strategy and methods in the context of site formation process and spatial distribution of archeological deposits. The study shows that by the fifth millennium BCE the subterranean system already assumed its present configuration, indicating that ancient human activity in the cave involved overcoming multiple environmental obstacles and hazards. In tandem, changes in the configuration of voids and shafts in the upper part of the subterranean system led to secondary deposition of external flint-bearing sediments alongside the primary deposited remains in the cave, and to blockage of other conduits. Since the cave is located in a rapidly-developing rural area, high-resolution documentation of the subterranean system and its surroundings is a valuable tool not only for research purposes, but also for promoting statutory protection of the cave and its natural and archeological legacies.

Deciphering carnivoran competition for animal resources at the 1.46 Ma early Pleistocene site of Barranco León (Orce, Granada, Spain)

Barranco León (Orce, Guadix Baza, Spain) is one of the sites with the oldest evidence of human activity in south-western Europe. This site has yielded human remains in association with both fauna and lithic artefacts, linked through the presence of anthropogenic cut and percussion marks. Nevertheless, while this site is a clear example of early hominin access to carcasses, the accumulations have been identified as a palimpsest, where multiple agents including carnivorans played a role in modifying and interacting in site formation processes. From this perspective, the interpretation and study of the Barranco León site is of great difficulty. Traditionally, interpretations have presented Barranco León as an area where hominins as well as the giant hyena, Pachycrocuta brevirostris, competed for access to carcasses left by machairodontine felids, such as the saber-toothed Homotherium latidens. Nevertheless, as will be presented in this study, the complexity and trophic pressure of Barranco León is much more complicated than originally hypothesized. This study presents a detailed taphonomic analysis of carnivoran activities in the level D1 of the Barranco León assemblage. 3D modelling, geometric morphometrics, and computational learning are used to provide new insights into the tooth pits observed on faunal materials. Here we show that Canis mosbachensis plays a pivotal role in the formation of the site, followed by Pachycrocuta, Homotherium, Ursus etruscus, and Xenocyon (Lycaon) lycaonoides. From this perspective, it can be seen that while Pachycrocuta and Homotherium were active agents in the formation of the site, other carnivorans are also important agents to consider when investigating the Guadix Baza region.

A micro-geoarchaeological view on stratigraphy and site formation processes in the Middle, Upper and Epi-Paleolithic layers of Sefunim Cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel

This paper presents a micro-geoarchaeological study carried out on the sedimentary sequence exposed at the entrance of Sefunim Cave, Israel, a sequence that spans from the Middle Paleolithic to the early Epipaleolithic periods. Using FTIR and micromorphological techniques, we investigated the stratigraphic sequence to reconstruct patterns of site use and archaeological formation processes. We identified formation processes that are common among Paleolithic caves sites in the Southern Levant, mainly the deposition of local terra rossa through colluvial sedimentation. Taphonomic disturbances of the deposits range from minimal to moderate, exhibited mainly by root and burrowing activity, but with no evidence for significant transport of archaeological materials. While the upper layers (II–III) are decalcified, the precipitation of secondary calcite results in increasing cementation of the sediments with depth in the lower layers (V–VII). We observed variation at the microscopic scale and identified an inverse correlation between human and carnivore activity throughout the layers. We observed human activity by the presence of micro-archaeological materials such as chert, bone, charcoal, rubified clay, burnt bone and shell, and wood ash. We observed carnivore activity by the presence of phosphatic grains and coprolite fragments as well as chewed and digested bones. We conclude that human activity at the site was characterized by episodes of varying intensity, based on the frequency of archaeological finds within the different layers. The alternating episodes of human and carnivore activity at Sefunim Cave may demonstrate the close-knit interactions and reciprocal relations that humans and carnivore shared at Paleolithic caves.

Pollen record of the Late Pleistocene-Holocene stratigraphic sequence and current plant biodiversity from Grotta Mora Cavorso (Simbruini Mountains, Central Italy).

Grotta Mora Cavorso (Jenne, Latium), a complex karstic system in Central Italy, has returned one of the most precious Prehistoric palaeontological and anthropological heritage. Through the analysis of pollen spectra and charcoals from cave stratigraphic levels (Late Pleistocene final phases-Holocene), the overall vegetation trend of the site was pointed out. Although taphonomy and palynology of cave deposits are complex, pollen assemblage represents a reliable source for inferring past vegetation; indeed, climatic, environmental, and cultural interactions determine fossil pollen record. Site formation processes and postdepositional bias should be generally considered in the analysis of stratigraphic sequences used to define paleoenvironmental conditions. The sediment deposits from Grotta Mora Cavorso showed a vegetation pattern point in out a progressive increase in woody plants from lower levels upward. Palynological investigations highlighted a changing environment predominantly characterized by cooler and perhaps more humid conditions than today, with plant subalpine and marsh communities nearby the cave. The ecological requirements of the identified plant taxa supplied useful indications to reconstruct ancient and modern environments of the Simbruini Mounts and the Upper Aniene River valley. This scenario, in accordance with previous faunistic and carpological findings and palynological analyses from Latium, provided a further perspective on the vegetation history, biodiversity, and climate of an important crossroads between the Adriatic and the Tyrrhenian coasts.

Ikhnos: A Novel Software to Register and Analyze Bone Surface Modifications Based on Three-Dimensional Documentation.

Simple SummaryHere we present a novel open-access 3D software called Ikhnos to register and analyze bone surface modifications in bone assemblages using a sample of wild and captive wolf populations as an example to demonstrate the possibilities offered by this newly developed toolkit. The study of bone surface modifications has been proven crucial in understanding archaeological and paleontological site formation processes, including the identification of the assemblage causal agent. The use of the tools provided by Ikhnos will help interpret the fossil record by allowing the generation of accurate biological and physicochemical referential models as well as the precise documentation of bone surface modifications in archaeological and paleontological assemblages.The study of bone surface modifications (BSM) is crucial in understanding site formation processes and the identification of the causal agent behind bone assemblages in the fossil record. In that line, many efforts have been made to generate referential models based on feeding experiments and human butchery simulations that can then be used to interpret the patterns observed in archaeological and paleontological sites. Considering these needs, we developed a novel open-access three-dimensional (3D) software called Ikhnos for the study of BSM distribution patterns on limb long bones. This software is comprised of all the necessary tools for the 3D documentation of BSM and bone breakage patterns, as well as the subsequent statistical analysis of this data due to the integration of an exclusive R library, the IkhnosToolBox. Additionally, Ikhnos integrates tools for bone survivorship calculations that could facilitate the estimation of the minimum number of elements (MNE) and minimum number of individuals (MNI). As a demonstration of its precision, here we present a case study analyzing the modifications produced by wild and captive wolf (Canis lupus signatus) populations of the Iberian Peninsula on deer carcasses.

Lithic technological and spatial analysis of the final Pleistocene at Border Cave, South Africa

This contribution focuses on the recently excavated lithic assemblage from Border Cave Members 1 RGBS, 3 BS, 2 WA and 2 BS. These members were attributed by Beaumont to the Howiesons Poort and post-Howiesons Poort Industries of the southern African Middle Stone Age. Here we consider lithics as indicators of cultural behaviour, site formation processes, and occupation intensity. As such, the assemblage is explored in depth through lithic technology attribute analysis, particle size distribution, and spatial analysis. These lines of inquiry follow the new allostratigraphic divisions proposed for the deposits by Stratford and colleagues. Results show that the lower members share a degree of similarity in terms of flaking strategies and raw material selection, whereas the upper members record a dissimilar set of features, with differentiation between them. The technological and spatial analyses suggest the sporadic presence of different groups at the site, each characterized by distinct sets of knapping techniques and methods but employing related knapping strategies and using similar raw materials. The interpretation of these members as a palimpsest of sporadic occupation is supported by the low number of archaeological finds by sediment volume. The evidence at hand does not support a Howiesons Poort attribution for the lowest members. The data show that lithics from part of Member 2 WA and 2 BS are in accordance with those of the recently defined Sibudan technocomplex.

A VIOLENT END OR A RESPECTFUL BEGINNING? CAVE 120 AT LACHISH REVISED

A VIOLENT END OR A RESPECTFUL BEGINNING? CAVE 120 AT LACHISH REVISED

Site formation processes of outdoor spaces in tropical environments: A micro-geoarchaeological case study from backyard Lo Gach, southern Vietnam

Site formation processes of outdoor spaces in tropical environments: A micro-geoarchaeological case study from backyard Lo Gach, southern Vietnam

Does the evidence at Arroyo del Vizcaíno (Uruguay) support the claim of human occupation 30,000 years ago?

ABSTRACT Researchers at Arroyo del Vizcaíno (AdV), Uruguay, have argued that human occupation dates prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (33,000–31,000 cal BP) based on the presence of purported stone tools and cutmarks on bones. We provide a summary of their research and critically evaluate these claims. We conclude that the claims of a pre-LGM occupation at AdV are unsupported due to: (1) equivocal evidence that the purported stone tools are culturally modified; (2) insufficiently documented spatial and contextual information; (3) inadequate geological research leading to an unconvincing site formation model; and (4) inadequate testing of alternative hypotheses for bones with surface modifications. We conclude that the site is best interpreted as a natural time-transgressive accumulation of mammal bones and other organic and inorganic materials within a fluvial setting spanning four millennia, and that bone surface modifications are the product of natural site formation processes rather than human agency.

Soil animals and archaeological site formation processes, with a particular focus on insects

Soil animals and archaeological site formation processes, with a particular focus on insects