Sinharaja Research Articles

Influence of Environmental Factors in Determining Tourist Destinations

Tourism is a growing industry in many countries of the world and for many countries it is a potential source of economic growth and employment opportunities. Focusing on Sri Lanka in terms of tourism, tourism is the third largest foreign exchange earner in Sri Lanka. It is important to correctly identify the internal tourist destinations in Sri Lanka, as well as the environmental factors that influence those destinations' decisions, so that development projects can be made. Accordingly, through this study, the environmental factor has been studied in determining the tourist destinations. The three places chosen as the study area of this research are Sinharaja Rainforest in Kalawana Divisional Secretariat Division of Ratnapura District of Sri Lanka, Bopath Ella Waterfall located in Kuruvita Divisional Secretariat Division and Sitawaka Botanical Garden located in Seethawaka Divisional Secretariat Division of Colombo District. The judgment-based method was used to select the three tourist destinations. Also, 120 people were used as a sample for data collection. A simple random sampling method was used. Primary data and secondary data were used for this study. Participant observation, interview method and questionnaire method were used to collect primary data. IBM SPSS-26 version software was used for data analysis and a Binary Logistic model was used to identify how much influence the environmental factor has in determining tourist destinations. Accordingly, it was studied here whether the environmental factor affecting the decision of a tourist destination changes according to variables such as age, gender, marital Status, education level, occupation, income level etc. According to the results of the research, the Chi- square value is 56.435. The P value is statistically significant at the 1% level. That means the P value of the model is 0.000 (P<0.01). That means that the model is statistically significant. That is, according to the independent variables used above, it can be concluded that there is a change in the influence of the environmental factor to determine a tourist destination. In the analysis, the statistical significance of each independent variable was tested by the Wald test, which can identify the effect of each independent variable on the model. Accordingly, it was clear from this research that the variables of profession and education have a significant effect on the environmental factor that affects the decision of a tourist destination. 
 Keywords: Education, Environmental factor, Profession, Tourist destinations

Valuation of Ecosystem Services for Driving Community-assisted Forest Landscape Restoration in Endane Biodiversity Corridor, Sri Lanka

The ecosystem services: direct or indirect benefits of ecosystems to human well-being, need to be recognized in conservation and restoration decision-making. In the human-dominated southwest Sri Lanka, we have established a forest landscape restoration project (Endane Biodiversity Corridor) linking a peripheral forest reserve to Sinharaja Rainforest Complex. The ecosystem services provided by tea monocultures, abandoned tea lands, and lowland home gardens were estimated employing a range of methods for estimating respective ecosystem service values with data collected from household surveys, key stakeholder interviews, and survey of tree flora in 20 m × 20 m plots for estimating aboveground carbon stock. The benefit transfer approach was used to value the supporting and regulating services. The total value of ecosystem services provided by this forest corridor landscape was 6,465 USD ha/yr in 2021. This amount included: provisioning services of 1,950 USD ha/yr, supporting services of 645 USD ha/yr, regulating services of 3,807 USD ha/yr, and cultural services of 38.8 USD ha/yr. Overall, our forest corridor landscape of 59.3 ha provided 382,362 of USD of ecosystem services a year. In comparison to tea monoculture, species-rich home gardens generate a high amount of provisioning services. Our study site is prone to ecosystem degradation due to human activities like forest land encroachment, illegal gem mining, and over-harvesting of forest products. However, we recognize the opportunity of enhancing the biodiversity of monoculture tea gardens and home gardens of the corridor following the principles of agroforestry and enrichment planting. These results i.e., the ecosystem service values among different land uses, are imperative for financing and encouraging community participation for forest restoration activities.
 Keywords: Forest resources assessment, Forest restoration, Common-based restoration

Valuation of Ecosystem Services for Driving Community-assisted Forest Landscape Restoration in Endane Biodiversity Corridor, Sri Lanka

The ecosystem services: direct or indirect benefits of ecosystems to human well-being, need to be recognized in conservation and restoration decision-making. In the human-dominated southwest Sri Lanka, we have established a forest landscape restoration project (Endane Biodiversity Corridor) linking a peripheral forest reserve to Sinharaja Rainforest Complex. The ecosystem services provided by tea monocultures, abandoned tea lands, and lowland home gardens were estimated employing a range of methods for estimating respective ecosystem service values with data collected from household surveys, key stakeholder interviews, and survey of tree flora in 20 m × 20 m plots for estimating aboveground carbon stock. The benefit transfer approach was used to value the supporting and regulating services. The total value of ecosystem services provided by this forest corridor landscape was 6,465 USD ha/yr in 2021. This amount included: provisioning services of 1,950 USD ha/yr, supporting services of 645 USD ha/yr, regulating services of 3,807 USD ha/yr, and cultural services of 38.8 USD ha/yr. Overall, our forest corridor landscape of 59.3 ha provided 382,362 of USD of ecosystem services a year. In comparison to tea monoculture, species-rich home gardens generate a high amount of provisioning services. Our study site is prone to ecosystem degradation due to human activities like forest land encroachment, illegal gem mining, and over- harvesting of forest products. However, we recognize the opportunity of enhancing the biodiversity of monoculture tea gardens and home gardens of the corridor following the principles of agroforestry and enrichment planting. These results i.e., the ecosystem service values among different land uses, are imperative for financing and encouraging community participation for forest restoration activities.
 
 
 
 
 Keywords: Forest resources assessment, Forest restoration, Common-based restoration
 
 
 

Genetic features of Sri Lankan elephant, Elephas maximus maximus Linnaeus revealed by high throughput sequencing of mitogenome and ddRAD-seq.

Elephas maximus maximus Linnaeus, the Sri Lankan subspecies is the largest and the darkest among Asian elephants. Patches of depigmented areas with no skin color on the ears, face, trunk, and belly morphologically differentiate it from the others. The elephant population in Sri Lanka is now limited to smaller areas and protected under Sri Lankan law. Despite its ecological and evolutionary importance, the relationship between Sri Lankan elephants and their phylogenetic position among Asian elephants remains controversial. While identifying genetic diversity is the key to any conservation and management strategies, limited data is currently available. To address such issues, we analyzed 24 elephants with known parental lineages with high throughput ddRAD-seq. The mitogenome suggested the coalescence time of the Sri Lankan elephant at ~0.2 million years, and sister to Myanmar elephants supporting the hypothesis of the movement of elephants in Eurasia. The ddRAD-seq approach identified 50,490 genome-wide SNPs among Sri Lankan elephants. The genetic diversity within Sri Lankan elephants assessed with identified SNPs suggests a geographical differentiation resulting in three main clusters; north-eastern, mid-latitude, and southern regions. Interestingly, though it was believed that elephants from the Sinharaja rainforest are of an isolated population, the ddRAD-based genetic analysis clustered it with the north-eastern elephants. The effect of habitat fragmentation on genetic diversity could be further assessed with more samples with specific SNPs identified in the current study.

Predicting annual stem diameter increment of selected tree species in Sinharaja rain forest by considering tree and stand level effects

The Ceylon Journal of Science is a peer-reviewed journal published quarterly by the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka in March, June, September and December. It is aimed at publishing high quality research articles on topics related to different disciplines in Science. The journal accepts original research articles, book reviews, reviews and mini-reviews, short communications, opinions, research notes, and commentaries and notes. The Journal has its own website https://site.pdn.ac.lk/cjs/. The journal strictly adheres to publication ethics as emphasized by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). It is indexed in Sri Lanka Journals Online (SLJOL), Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Google Scholar and Zoological Records. According to the Google Scholar;H5-Index: 12H5-Median: 15According to the Exaly (1970 – 2021);Impact Factor: 0.6 (top 19%)Extended IF: 0.6 (top 19%)H-Index: 8 (top 28%)Citations/paper: 1.42

Economic Valuation on Conservation of Rainforest in Eastern Sinharaja, Sri Lanka

The value for goods and services is noticeable as the price is paid for those goods and services, but in environmental goods and services the real price or value is misrepresent in ordinary markets. Especially the forest benefits or non-market values are not normally exchange in markets and generally ignored in decision making. Benefits obtained from environmental elements cannot be estimated and it causes for the continuous damages which can be reason for long term worldwide effects. Therefore such values and damages need to be justified at least by ensuring that they can be identified and conserved for future generations. But conserving forest features, improving or managing is costly. Eastern Sinharaja – Sri Lanka is a world heritage rainforest which represented with valuable resources for all living beings. However, the resources in Eastern Sinharaja is under continuous degradation and requires conservation measures. The research problem focuses on what is the economic value on conservation of Eastern Sinharaja rainforest environment. This research is attempt to estimate the total value of conservation of Eastern Sinharaja rainforest environment using Contingent Valuation method (CVM). The information was gathered from a questionnaire survey under random sampling method using 234 of sample size. The results has discovered, respectively socio economic variables, general environmental attitudes and willingness to pay sections designed have identified as key sections which derived the main features which are affecting to the economic value of the conservation of the rainforest environment. Gender, employment, voter, income are socio economic features which affect to the economic value. In general environment attitudes for willingness to pay (WTP) and the respondents attitudes are positive when consider about the significance values of the features for Mean WTP of Rs. 257.30 from a household. This study indicated that despite Sri Lanka is a developing country, people are willing to contribute for conservation of the resource. Those derived values may significantly contribute in conservation of rainforest environment and deliver materials to design applicable policies for future rainforest environment management.

Impact of Climate Change and Variability on Spatiotemporal Variation of Forest Cover; World Heritage Sinharaja Rainforest, Sri Lanka

Rainforests are continuously threatened by various anthropogenic activities. In addition, the ever-changing climate severely impacts the world’s rainforest cover. The consequences of these are paid back to human at a higher cost. Nevertheless, little or no significant attention was broadly given to this critical environmental issue. The World Heritage Sinharaja Rainforest in Sri Lanka is originating news on its forest cover due to human activities and changing climates. The scientific analysis is yet to be presented on the related issues. Therefore, this paper presents a comprehensive study on the possible impact on the Sinharaja Rainforest due to changing climate. Landsat images with measured rainfall data for 30 years were assessed and the relationships are presented. Results showcased that the built-up areas have drastically been increased over the last decade in the vicinity and the declared forest area. The authorities found the issues are serious and a sensitive task to negotiate in conserving the forest. The rainfall around the forest area has not shown significant trends over the years. Therefore, the health of forest cover was not severely impacted. Nevertheless, six cleared-up areas were found inside the Singaraja Rainforest under no human interactions. This can be due to a possible influence from the changing climate. This was justified by the temporal variation of Land Surface Temperature (LST) assessments over these six cleared-up areas. Therefore, the World Heritage rainforest is threatened due to human activities and under the changing climate change. Hence, the conservation of the Sinharaja Rainforest would be challenging in the future.

Tree Diversity and Soil Characteristics in a Tea–Forest Interface in Southwest Sri Lanka

Fragmented and degraded ecosystems should be restored to ensure the biological connectivity among fragmented forest landscapes. The tropical rainforests of Southwestern Sri Lanka are highly degraded and fragmented due to plantation agriculture and human settlements. However, the high spatial variation in environmental factors and ecosystem functions challenge the success rate of restoration interventions. The aim of this study was to assess the vegetation composition and stand structure in relation to the spatial variation in key soil physicochemical parameters in the Endane Biodiversity Corridor that links peripheral forest reserve to the Sinharaja Rainforest Complex (SRC). The site that extends over 24 ha was classified into five land-use categories (productive tea lands, marginal tea lands, scrub—abandoned three years ago, and two woodlands—abandoned 15 years ago) in which the vegetation composition, stand structure, and physicochemical parameters of soil were assessed and mapped. Results revealed that the Shannon diversity index in the scrub and the woodlands were higher than in the tea lands. The diversity among the secondary forest patches was similar. However, with a mean record of 14 species, the species richness was high in sites close to the SRC. In comparison to the SRC (358 Mg ha−1), there was a substantial potential to sequester more carbon in the restoration sites (12–108 Mg ha−1). While explaining 31% of abundance and species distribution, the ordination results revealed a close relationship of the soil parameters to vegetation composition and species abundance. The calculated coefficient variation values for soil parameters (TN, EC, Av.P, Ex.K, OC, and BD) were beyond 12%, indicating high or moderate soil spatial variability among the land use categories. Coefficient of variation for soil pH was estimated to be 9%, revealing low soil spatial variability among the land use categories. The maps of these soil parameters corresponded with the type of land use and fertilizer application to tea fields. The highest and the lowest total N contents were observed in the scrub and woodlands, respectively, which appears to be mediated by the relative composition of N-fixing trees between the two groups. Our results facilitate effective matching of sites to species for restoration of the Endane Biodiversity Corridor that may be replicated in similar restoration contexts in tropical Asia.

Complex Small-Holder Agriculture in Rainforest Buffer Zone, Sri Lanka, Supports Endemic Birds

The Sinharaja rainforest in southwestern Sri Lanka is a protected forest in a largely agriculture-dominated landscape. In keeping with global UNESCO global biosphere reserves planning, the Sinharaja is surrounded by a buffer zone of regenerating forest and villages with small tea plots and multi-strata tree gardens (homegardens). Globally, however, conservation planning lacks standards on buffer zone management. We ask what relationships exist between village land use and bird assemblages, which are effective ecosystem indicators. Birds have been little studied across land use and vegetation structure in actively managed, large, protected forest buffer zones. To that end, we ran spatially- and temporally-replicated bird point counts across tree gardens, forest fragments, and tea plots within a Sinharaja village. Tree gardens held a greater abundance of birds across habitat association, conservation concern, diet, and endemic species than forest fragments or tea plots. Forest fragments and tree gardens hosted statistically similar numbers of birds in some subsets, but their species assemblages differed. In tea plots, greater shade tree species richness correlated with greater bird abundance and species richness. Our results support the argument for programs to support complex small-scale tree-based agroforestry embedded in buffer zone regenerating forest.

Cockscomb-shaped twighopper, Cladonotus bhaskari sp. n., a new and rare pygmy grasshopper species from Sri Lanka (Orthoptera: Tetrigidae: Cladonotinae).

The paper describes a new species of a Sri Lankan twighopper, genus Cladonotus Saussure, 1862 (Orthoptera: Tetrigidae: Cladonotini), C. bhaskari sp. n., based on a single female specimen collected and photographed by T. Kirschey in 2016 in Sinharaja rainforest (SW Sri Lanka). The new species is clearly distinguished from other species of the genus by its long and spine-like frontomedial projection and cockscomb-shaped promedial projection. Species of this genus resemble tiny twigs, hence the name 'twighopper'. Our new specimen is the first known female of the genus, and we also present the first photograph of the member of this genus in the natural habitat. An annotated identification key for the Cladonotus species is provided. Furthermore, we synonymize genus Hypsaeus Bolívar, 1887 syn. nov. with Hymenotes Westwood, 1837, based on the pronotal variability of the leaf-like pygmy grasshoppers in the Philippines and introduce one new combination-Hymenotes westwoodi (Bolívar, 1887) comb. nov..

Diversity of Amphibians in the Eastern and Southern Parts of the Sinharaja Rain Forest

The Sinharaja forest reserve is one of the least disturbed and biologically unique tropical lowland rain forests in Sri Lanka with the eastern Sinharaja consisting of moist sub-montane forests providing habitat par excellence for amphibians. However, the diversity of amphibians in the eastern and southern sections of Sinharaja is inadequately researched. Hence, this research focuses on studying amphibian diversity in lowland rain forests and sub-montane forests in eastern and southern Sinharaja. This research is guided by Quantitative Deductive research methodology and 16 line transects and 16 quadrate samples are used for primary data collecting. Twenty-four amphibian species were identified, 22 (92%) species of which are endemic to Sri Lanka. The amphibian species identified included 5 vulnerable species, 7 endangered species and 8 critically endangered species. The highest number of species, including endangered and critically endangered species were recorded in the sub-montane forests than in lowland rain forest. Major threats to the existence of amphibian species were issues related to biopiracy including loss of forest genetic resources and wildlife smuggling, illegal forest utilization practices, gem mining, illegal forest encroachments and unethical tourism practices. Thus, the Forest Department and other responsible authorities must attend to minimize the effects of these negative human impacts on these vulnerable areas in order to protect and conserve the diversity of sensitive amphibian species in their habitats.

Range extension of Lyriothemis defonsekai van der Poorten, 2009 (Anisoptera: Libellulidae), an endemic odonate in Sri Lanka

Lyriothemis defonsekai van der Poorten, 2009 is a nationally Critically Endangered odonate species in Sri Lanka. It is endemic to the country and was known only from the type locality, Kudawa, Sinharaja Forest Reserve and its vicinity thus it was considered to be a point endemic. We report the first ever record of the species outside Sinharaja extending the known range of the species. The present observations were recorded from Yagirala Forest Reserve where an immature male and one or two mature females of the species were observed. We also discuss the observations on its habitat and distribution range.

„Sustainability‟ of Sustainable Development Discourse (With Special Focus on Community Based Eco-tourism in the Sinharaja Rain Forest)

Community based eco-tourism (CBET) is a well-established concept that based on sustainable development discourse and its implementation has been an important component for many regional development and eco-system management strategies. This research paper argues that CBET under the sustainable development discourse has originated as a western concept, however, CBET operates within diversgeo-political, economic and cultural contexts, which generate challenges to achieve realistic goals of sustainable development discourse. This research examines a CBET initiative in the Kudawa- Sinharaja site, Sri Lanka which shifted in 1995 from a central government approach under the forestry sector master plan, in line with western CBET and sustainable development ideologies. A qualitative approach has principally guided this research together with quantitative analysis to examine the socio-cultural, socio-economic and geo-political context. A total of 293 participants have provided information for this research, which includes 193 interviews (115 individuals, and 15 different focus groups totalling 78 people) and 100 questionnaire respondents. These participants were surveyed during late 2012 and early 2013, and included both domestic and overseas tourists, local community residents and tourist operators, tourism consultants, and government officials. A critical discourse analysis (CDA) method was used to examine both primary qualitative data, which were collected through participant and direct observation, interviews as well as secondary data. One of the main findings is that despite plans being developed at a community level, the wider context includes superimposed capitalism, which dominates and counteracts the ideologies of sustainable development discourse. Superimposed capitalism results in individualistic and competitive behaviours that undermine the collaborative community approach. It encourages poaching and the selling of rare flora and fauna (biopiracy), and results in anthropogenic disturbances to nature. Further, this research also highlights the strong influence of geo-politics, which operates at both the international and domestic scale. Political corruption, access to funds, and the lack of established decision making processes are also associated with geo-politics. This research also underlines the influence of the socio-cultural context such as gender inequality and caste discrimination, which substantially disempower certain people. The research concludes that sustainable development discourseis a phantasy ideology if not to be addressed, in particular, superimposed capitalism, socio-cultural and geo-political issues in the particular areas. The findings of this research will inform CBET in similar developing countries, but caution is required because the geo-political, economic and cultural context is different in every country. Keywords: Sustainable development discourse, Community based eco-tourism

Composition of Soil Seed Banks in Relation to Four Different Land Use Patterns in Tropical Moist Forest Lands of Southwest Lowlands, Sri Lanka

The soil seed bank comprises all viable seeds in the soil. Seed banks have been defined as the collections of seeds that can remain dormant in the surface soil until their germination is triggered by an environmental change. Natural forests in the tropics have been and continue to be subjected to natural and human induced disturbances, which have resulted in their degradation or complete destruction. In places where the sites are left without further interference, the processes of succession that will ultimately lead to re-vegetation of the sites may be initiated. In such cases, soil seed banks serve as one of the major sources of plant re-growth. This study was conducted to document the species composition of soil seed banks in four different landuses and to make a comparison between them. Those are natural forest area in Sinharaja Forest Reserve towards Pitakele, Kekilla fernland, Pine plantations and tea lands in Pitakele village. Three sites from each landuse were randomly selected for the study and ten soil samples were randomly collected from ten different locations in each site and mixed to make a composite. The number of viable seeds in each soil sample was estimated through germination trials. A total of 1,673 seeds germinated from the soil seed banks of the 12 sites. Most of the tree species were observed in soil seed banks in natural forest and Pine plantations while seeds of herbaceous and graminoid species dominated the soil seed banks of the tea lands and Kekilla fernlands. Natural forest supported the lowest species diversity (Shannon index: H‟1.37) in soil seed banks compared to other land uses. Pine lands (Shannon index: H‟2.22) and Tea lands (Shannon index: H‟1.58) had higher species diversity followed by Kekilla fernland (Shannon index: H‟1.47). Keywords: Soil seed bank, Landuse pattern, Southwest lowlands

Change Detection Using Mappable Vegetation Related Indices A Case Study from Sinharaja Forest Reserve

This study evaluates multi-year changes of vegetation in the Sinharaja forest reserve usingmappable vegetation related indices viz., Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)and Burn Index (BI). Land-cover changes in the Sinharaja forest reserve region are detectedusing Landsat 7 ETM+ images for 1993, 2001, and 2005. Seven individual bands of eachimage were converted to new multiband files by layer stacking using ENVI® 4.5. Then themultiband files were re-projected to UTM Zone 44 North, WGS-84 Datum. Each data set wasexported to ENVI® EX software package to detect the changes between time steps based onNDVI and BI using an image difference tool. Land-cover data, which were obtained from theDIVA GIS web portal were compared with Landsat image data. Results of BI showed that theforest reserve fringe was vulnerable to forest fire. For example, 1993- 2001 period 160 haidentified as burn area, while it was 79 ha in 2001-2005 and 10 ha for the entire period of1993-2005. NDVI resulted in a 962 ha increase of vegetation prime at the western Sinharajain 2001-2005 periods. In addition, a 15 ha decrease in vegetation for 1993-2005 periods. Theresults are visualized using an embedded 3D render window of Google Earth and 2D view ofArcGIS explorer online. In conclusion, in-situ ground truthing data for the fire-influencedarea is important to implement sustainable forest resource management at the Sinharaja forestreserve.

Agro- forestry system to protect both the Sinharaja forest and the peripheral villages (a case study of the southern part of Sin haraja)

Sinharaja, a 'Tropical Wet Ever Green Rain Forest' situated between latitude 6° 21' -6026' Nandlongitude 80031' - 80034' E in Sri Lanka is surrounded by more than 27 peripheral villages. Thevillagers have interacted with the forest for many years .The objective of this study is to verify theaptness of introducing the Agro-forestry System into these peripheral villages to protect both theforest and the villages. The villages situated in the southern part of Sinharaja namely, Kosmulla,Thabalagama, Madugeta, Warukandeniyaa and Kollonthotuwa were selected for primary-datacollection. Participatory observation approach is basically used while adhering to the secondary andtertiary data as well. According to study there is a traditional yet unorganized agro-farming systemamong these villagers. So, many cultivated creepers varieties and tree species can be seen in theyards. Also, for years the villagers have used the forest for many purposes. Thus, when the villagersencroach forest the forest tends to decline. Also, due to mono- crop cultivation, especially tea, quality ofsoi! diminishes and tea cultivation has caused many environmental problems. Thus, stabilization ofa systematic Agro- forestry system in these areas would minimize the environmental problems andwould conserve both' Sinharaja' and its peripheral villagers. Further, this kind of stabilization processshould go parallel with the prevalent lifestyles and culture of the villagers. Additionally, that processshould provide villagers with economical advantages. Moreover, plantation of crop verities in the tealands should be encouraged as well as animal husbandry, apiculture and plantation of medicinal plantetc. Yet, the contribution and the sponsorship of the government and non-government organizations,plan and policy making ofscientists and the active participation of the peripheral villagers are essentialto bring these activities into success.

Agro- forestry system to protect both the Sinharaja forest and the peripheral villages (a case study of the southern part of Sin haraja)

Kandyan homcgardens are the most predominant upland cropping system which supposed tobe highly adapted, diversified, economically and environmental viable land use system. Objectives ofthis study were to identify problems and improvement potentials to this important system of landmanagement. Data were collected from randomly selected (n=65) homegardens in Yatinuwara DistrictSecretariat division during 2006. A vegetation survey was conducted to evaluate the structure andcomposition of homegardens. A household survey was conducted by interviewing the members toidentify tree use practices by family members, constraints and improvement potentials. Secondarydata were also collected from Agrarian Service Centres, maps and reports.Hornegardens in the study area have maintained diverse on farm trees. They cultivating andusing at least 138 species of which 36, 34, 24 and 6% comprised timber, medicinal plant, fruit tree andexport agricultural crop species. There are 73, 193,300 and 147, individuals of timber, fruit medicinaland export agricultural crops plants/ha indicating high plant density per unit area. These speciesgrown on homegardens have substantially contributed to meet the dai ly need of household, supplyingmainly fruit, green vegetable, timber and fuelwood. Some of these species have medicinal value andalso play an important role in soil conservation. This suggests that homegardens are important as asource of conserving agro-biodiversity, species, habitat and landscape protection. However, morethan half of the homegardens of Yatinuwara area are 20-80 perches category which indicate landfragmentation. Thus, each land unit has to playa vital role with limited land availability. Therefore,sustainable management practices are very important to increase production to reach increasing demanddue to increasing human population while maintaining the resource base. In satisfying necessarychanges to hornegardens, availability of quality planting material (only 22% had access to recommendedplanting material), height offruit trees, poor soil management and labour scarcity were identified asmajor problems in Yatinuwara area. There are improvement potentials to homegardens by increasingthe productivity of the existing system. It is possible even to increase the number of trees perhomegardens by introducing new varieties. It is also possible to replace existing less productiveindividuals by certified planting material. In addition, management of soil can also be improved byintroducing new techniques such as compost preparations with garbages and fallen leaves whichrequire attitudinal changes of households. Implications of these are discussed with respect to food,nutritional and health security and income generation.

FRUTING PHENOLOGY OF EIGHT Shorea SPECIES IN SINHARAJA MAN AND BIOSPHERE RESERVE

The canopy of Sinharaja rain forest is dominated by Mesua and Shorea spp., which areendemic to Sri Lanka. Information on the fruiting phenology of Shorea is vital, in termsof identifying trees as mother trees and collecting seeds for restoration and reforestationof degraded forest areas in the south-western part of Sri LankaThe phenology of eight Shorea species, [SO affinis, S. congestiflora, S. trapezifolia and S.zeyJanica belonging to the Thiniya group and S. cordifolia, S. megistophyJ/a, S.worthingtonii and S. disticha belonging to the Beraliya group] were examined foreighteen years. Fruiting of selected individuals was recorded fort-nightly as a percentageof the observable part of the crown in flower. The effect of environmental parameters onfruiting was assessed using Spearman rank correlation coefficient.In all species, the number of trees participating in a given fruiting event differed greatlybetween years. Individuals of S. trapezifolia and S. zeyJanica had more intense fruitingactivity (>50%) in most years while, it was only 1-50% in S. congestiflora. Fruitingintensities of individuals of the Beraliya group varied relatively little among differentfruiting episodes. An annual fruiting pattern among the Thiniyas and a supra-annualpattern in the Beraliyas were observed. The number of flowering episodes per tree washigh in members of the Thiniya group. Fruit fall was tightly synchronized among theBeraliyas, but sequential among the Thiniyas.The monthly rainfall and the fruiting intensities of all Shorea species, except in S.cordifolia and S. zeyJanica, were significant. The seasonal rainfall and fruitingintensities of four Shorea species were significantly correlated. The timing and intensityof fruitingwas observed to coincide with favorable environmental conditions.This project was funded by grants from by the USAID (Grant No: DPE-5542-G-55-4073-00) through Harvard University, U. S. A. and the John D. and Catherine T.MacArthur Foundation and the Britin Scholarship Fund

COMPOSITION, STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF MIXED-SPECIES BIRD FLOCKS IN WALAUWA TTA-WA TURANA SWAMP FOREST, KALUTARA DISTRICT, WESTERN PROVINCE OF SRI LANKA

Mixed- species foraging bird flocks in Walauwatta-Waturan Swamp Forest (WWSF) were studiedfor a period of six months from February to July in 2001. Field data was collected from 07:00 to18:00 hrs and flocks were followed as long as possible to record their composition. Scan samplingmethod (Altman, 1975) was used to record their behavioural activity, height of feeding, feedingsite and the role of each individual within the flock. Two minute scan samples were done with fiveminute intervals and almost all the birds participating in the flock were scanned within the twominutes time period.The flocking tendency of birds in WWSF was 28.7% and 27 flocks were studied. A total of 31 birdspecies were recorded to participate in mixed-species flocks in WWSF. These include 28 residentand 3 migrate species. Five species were endemic to Sri Lanka. The flock composition varied from3 to 15 species (5.89±2.61) and 4 to 31 individuals (I2.96±7.41). There was a positive correlationbetween the number of species and ~ock size (r= 0.796).Crested Drongo (77.78%) and Black-naped Monarch (70.37%) were the most frequent birds foundin flocks while Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler was the most abundant (8.78±3.67 individuals perflock). Territorial species such as Purple-romped Sunbird joined the flock when it was passingthrough their territory. Birds in mixed-species flocks in WWSF were classified as nuclear species,lead species, regular species, and occasional species. 2 major nuclear species (Crested Drongo &Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler), 4 lead species (Above two with Malabar Trogon and AsianParadise Flycatcher), 12 regular species, and IS occasional species were identified. Associations ofbird species participating in mixed species flocks in WWSF were studied using cluster analysis.Two main clusters could be identified, one of which could be again divided into two subassociations.The first cluster comprised of Crested Drongo and Black-naped Monarch who showedthe highest level of association. Black Bulbul and Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler could not bepooled into any clusters.Different species in mixed species flocks had different optimum height levels of movementthrough the forest and appeared to have characteristic feeding sites. The vertical distribution of theregular species in flocks was consistent. Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler was found at a widerange of foraging heights. But, Scarlet Minivet and Black Bulbul were observed mostly in thecanopy and the Crested Drongo was observed in the middle strata of the forest (10 to 20 ft). TheAsian Paradise Flycatcher was observed in the same range. However, other fly catching species(Black-naped Monarch and Tickell's Blue flycatcher) were observed mostly in the 10 to 15ftvertical range. There was an extensive overlap of height ranges between some species. But theywere observed to use different activity/feeding sites. Black-naped Monarch and Velvet-frontedBlue Nuthatch were found in the same height range, but feeding sites utilized by them wasdifferent (foliage and tree trunk respectively). Crested Drongo and Asian Paradise Flycatcher wereobserved to occupy the same vertical height range and feeding sites, but they were using differentfeeding techniques. Even being a small area of 12 ha (CEA, 1994) IIWTOUIIdedby Rubber plantations and homegardens, the Swamp Forest have a considerable flocking tendency with compared to Sinharaja Forest Reserve 30%)(Kotagama et. AI., 1986) and Knuckles Conservation Forest (30.S) (Sbriyani, 2000), thus worth conserve thehabitat

GLOBAL VALUES FOR LOCAL RESOURCES A CONTINGENT VALUATION APPROACH FOR SINHARAJA RAIN FOREST RESERVE IN SRI LANKA

Tropical forests are sources of important global use and non-use values. However. thesevalues are not often reflected in global markets, thus creating global externalities. In orderto demonstrate glohal values of tropical rain forests. this study sought to estimate globalnon-use values of the Sinharaja Rain Forest Reserve in Sri LankaA contingent valuation survey was carried out in the United Kingdom in order to obtainexistence and bequest values for the forest. Open ended questions were asked from theselected sample of respondents 10 obtain their maximum willingness 10 pay.The non use values elicited for the forest were related to variation in respondents' socioeconomic status. Multiple regression analysis showed that income and education hadpositive coefficients for hoth existence and bequest values.The results showed that remote populations have positive values for tropical rain forest.Thc implications of these results to the use of contingent valuation methodology forestimating total economic values of forests in developing countries is discussed. and theparticular implications of demonstrating the magnitude of external benefits that couldprovide insights into the correction of global economic failures highlighted