Sinharaja Research Articles

NATURAL REGENeRATION IN KEKILLA FERNLANDS IN THE PERIPHERY OF SINHARAJA WORLD HERITAGE SITE

In tropical moist climate Dicranopteris !inearis (Kekilla) fernland can develop as a resultof rain forest clearance followed by frequent burning. In Sri Lanka D. linearis fernlandsare capable of suppressing the natural regeneration of rain forest. Sinha raja WorldHeritage Site is one of the least disturbed and biologically unique lowland rain forest nowremaining in Sri Lanka. Some areas of the periphery of Sinharaja are covered with Dlenearis fern. Natural regeneration dynamics of soil seed banks need to be studied as apossible source of regeneration for forest restoration in these fern lands.This study was carried out to understand the natural regeneration of soil seed bank inKekilla fernland with reference to surface soil disturbance and trophographic levels in theperiphery of Sinharaja World Heritage Site.Three sites of Kekilla fernlands were selected for the study. Two surface soil disturbancetreatments were applied to each site. The first treatment (Root Removal) was applied at thebeginning of the study. The next treatment (Till) was applied to each site after six monthsfrom the first treatment. Seeds in the soil were allowed to germinate and seedlings werecounted once in two weeks during the first four months. After four months the seedlingswere recorded once a month. Transectswere laid out in each site to understand the floristiccomposition in surrounding vegetation of D. lenearis fernlands.Seedlings of 35 taxa were identified during the period of study. The study revealed thatboth soil disturbance treatments can facilitate the establishment of herbs, shrubs and treesin the fern land dominated by D. lenearis. Results showed that herbs, shrubs, grassesrepresented the greater proportions of seedling recruitment than pioneer trees. Seedlings ofprimary forest species were not existentSpecies composition of soil seed bank ill three-tophographic positions was not significantlydifferent. Numbers of species and seedling density were greatest in root removal treatment.Seedlings of primary forest species found in surrounding vegetation were not regeneratingin the plots studied. Only few pioneer tree seedlings were found in the plots, representingsurrounding vegetation of Kekilla fernland.

Trends and process of Kithul tapping as an aspect of forest utilization (A case study on the village Warukandeniya situated within Sinharaja)

The Sinharaja forest reserve is one of the least disturbed and biologically unique Tropical Wet Evergreen Rain Forests in Sri Lanka located in the Southern as well as Sabaragamuwa provinces in the wet zone.In addition, the forest reservation comprises two isolated villages located within it and twenty-five villages at its vicinity. Many of the villagers from these villages have practiced Kithul tapping over years. The study area of the research- Warukandeniya is one of the villages situated within the southern division of the forest and sited in Nelluwa divisional secretariat in Galle district. The foremost objective of the research is to study and analyze the trends and process of Kithul tapping as one of the methods of forest utilization and to critically overview its impact on the forest reservation. In the study participatory observation, interviews, semi- structural interviews, questionnaires and case- studies were mainly used as the research methods. In accordance with the research findings, the process of kithul tapping can be recognized as both economic and cultural practice. Most of the kithul groves within the forest area or at the vicinity are inherited and the ownership of these groves has been passed from father to son over generations. Further, even though the sudden economic boom occurred in 1970s at the buffer zones of Sinharaja because of tea plantation was able to hinder the need for kithul tapping as a source of income generation, still the practice of kithul tapping holds a noticeable importance as one of the major economic activities in the study area. In addition, as contemporary trends in Kithul tapping, use of modern technology, lack of quality maintenance in production and renouncing the traditional ways of kithul tapping can be identified. Additionally, it is clear that corresponding to the changes arise in the process of kithul tapping the associated cultural and social aspects are subjected to vary.

Trends and process of Kithul tapping as an aspect of forest utilization (A case study on the village Warukandeniya situated within Sinharaja)

The Sinharaja forest reserve is one of the least disturbed and biologically unique Tropical Wet Evergreen Rain Forests in Sri Lanka located in the Southern as well as Sabaragamuwa provinces in the wet zone.In addition, the forest reservation comprises two isolated villages located within it and twenty-five villages at its vicinity. Many of the villagers from these villages have practiced Kithul tapping over years. The study area of the research- Warukandeniya is one of the villages situated within the southern division of the forest and sited in Nelluwa divisional secretariat in Galle district. The foremost objective of the research is to study and analyze the trends and process of Kithul tapping as one of the methods of forest utilization and to critically overview its impact on the forest reservation. In the study participatory observation, interviews, semi- structural interviews, questionnaires and case- studies were mainly used as the research methods. In accordance with the research findings, the process of kithul tapping can be recognized as both economic and cultural practice. Most of the kithul groves within the forest area or at the vicinity are inherited and the ownership of these groves has been passed from father to son over generations. Further, even though the sudden economic boom occurred in 1970s at the buffer zones of Sinharaja because of tea plantation was able to hinder the need for kithul tapping as a source of income generation, still the practice of kithul tapping holds a noticeable importance as one of the major economic activities in the study area. In addition, as contemporary trends in Kithul tapping, use of modern technology, lack of quality maintenance in production and renouncing the traditional ways of kithul tapping can be identified. Additionally, it is clear that corresponding to the changes arise in the process of kithul tapping the associated cultural and social aspects are subjected to vary.

Extinction Risk Assessments at the Species Level: National Red List Status of Endemic Wild Cinnamon Species in Sri Lanka

Cinnamomum is one of the most important genera among the crop wild relatives in Sri Lanka. Out of the eight Cinnamomum species that grow in Sri Lanka, Cinnamomum verum is indigenous, Cinnamomum camphora is introduced while the other remaining Cinnamomum species are endemic to Sri Lanka. The main objectives of this study were to determine the national red list status of the endemic wild cinnamon species and to assess the extinction risk of them. Only the seven endemic wild cinnamon species were included in the study. The study was mainly based on the eco-geographical survey which consisted of the study of the herbarium specimens to collect reliable secondary data and development of potential distribution maps using available data. DIVA-GIS software was used to develop potential maps. Thereafter, high potential areas were identified using the above maps and field visits were made to collect primary data. Collected primary data were analyzed and national red listing criteria were applied. According to the ecogeographical survey, Cinnamomum dubium found in wet zone forests was the most common species. Average red listing scoring value (ARLSV) of Cinnamomum dubium was 1.375 and was considered as Not Threatened (NT). Cinnamomum ovalifolium was distributed only in Nuwara Eliya, Kandy and Badulla districts. ARLSV of this species was 2.25 and national red list status was considered as Indeterminate (I). Cinnamomum litseaefolium was limited to Kandy and Matale districts with ARLSV of 3.125 and nationally red listed as Threatened (T). Cinnamomum rivulorum was limited only to Sinharaja forest reserve and was a very rare species. ARLSV of this species was 3.5 and nationally red listed as Threatened. Cinnamomum sinharajaense was distributed in Sinharaja forest reserve and it was a rare species with 3.625 ARLSV and was considered as Threatened. Cinnamomum capparucoronde was limited to the low country wet zone rain forests and was also considered as a rare species. ARLSV of this species was 4 and considered as Highly Threatened (HT). Cinnamomum citriodorum was limited from Balangoda to the Haputale region with scattered distribution and ARLSV of this species was 4.5. Therefore, this species was also considered as Highly Threatened. Lack of awareness, habitat destruction, urbanization and unsuitable agriculture practices were the major threats to wild cinnamon. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/tar.v21i3.3298 TAR 2010; 21(3): 247-257

Investigating residual effects of selective logging on ant species assemblages in Sinharaja Forest Reserve, Sri Lanka

The residual effects of logging on forest fauna and flora have been well studied in other regions of the world, with many investigations finding that recovery of species richness and abundance can occur within one or two decades after the logging event. In this study, we use ant assemblages to compare logged (>30 years) and unlogged mixed dipterocarp forest in the Sinharaja Forest Reserve, a World Heritage Site in Sri Lanka. Species richness and abundance were higher in the logged forest than in the unlogged forest, but not significantly so. Species assemblages, on the other hand, were significantly different and were associated with different environmental variables in the logged and unlogged forest. The findings from this study corroborate other studies that have shown that species composition in logged forest does not appear to return to unlogged forest composition, even after three to six decades have passed. Since this study was not a before-and-after comparison, it is difficult to confirm whether the differences arise from the residual effects of logging or from the general patchiness of species distribution in tropical forest. However, the cumulative results do suggest that there is a residual effect of logging on ant species composition in this forest, even after more than 30 years of regeneration.

Sustainable Tourism Infrastructure Planning: A GIS-Supported Approach

ABSTRACT This paper presents a conceptual geographical information systems (GIS)-supported sustainable tourism infrastructure planning (STIP) framework including attraction, service and transportation facilities. This framework focuses on tourism planning as an integrated approach based on sustainability criteria. STIP aims to integrate a set of sustainability criteria (i.e. development objectives, visitor experience preferences, carrying capacity standards and resource impacts) into infrastructure planning via GIS. Based on these criteria, STIP provides protected area management insights in the most sustainable locations and layout of future infrastructure. STIP involves three phases: a visitor segmentation (not GIS supported) phase, a zoning phase (GIS supported) and a transportation network planning phase (GIS supported). To demonstrate the integration of these phases, STIP was applied as a trail planning demonstration on data (i.e. social and physical) from the Sinharaja Forest Reserve, a tropical rainforest in Sri Lanka's southwestern wet zone. The area experiences increasing visitor use and requires additional trail development to mitigate resource stress. Nature and cultural tourist opportunity trail networks were mapped based on the sustainability criteria which provide directives for sustainable trail development within the reserve.

Species–habitat associations in a Sri Lankan dipterocarp forest

Forest structure and species distribution patterns were examined among eight topographically defined habitats for the 205 species with stems ≥ 1 cm dbh inhabiting a 25-ha plot in the Sinharaja rain forest, Sri Lanka. The habitats were steep spurs, less-steep spurs, steep gullies and less-steep gullies, all at either lower or upper elevations. Mean stem density was significantly greater on the upper spurs than in the lower, less-steep gullies. Stem density was also higher on spurs than in gullies within each elevation category and in each upper-elevation habitat than in its corresponding lower-elevation habitat. Basal area varied less among habitats, but followed similar trends to stem density. Species richness and Fisher's alpha were lower in the upper-elevation habitats than in the lower-elevation habitats. These differences appeared to be related to the abundances of the dominant species. Of the 125 species subjected to torus-translation tests, 99 species (abundant and less abundant and those in different strata) showed at least one positive or negative association to one or more of the habitats. Species associations were relatively more frequent with the lower-elevation gullies. These and the previous findings on seedling ecophysiology, morphology and anatomy of some of the habitat specialists suggest that edaphic and hydrological variation related to topography, accompanied by canopy disturbances of varying intensity, type and extent along the catenal landscape, plays a major role in habitat partitioning in this forest.

Variations in population sizes of five rodent taxa across a habitat gradient in the Sinharaja rainforest, Sri Lanka

© Zoo Outreach Organisation; www.zoosprint.org Manuscript 1374; Received 06 June 2005; Finally accepted 19 November 2005; Date of publication 21 December 2005 2115 January 2006 | ISSN 0973-2535 (Print edition); 0973-2551 (Online edition) Communities are dynamic entities. Within them, populations of species undergo fluctuations in abundance over time, often displaying regular population cycles (Halama & Dueser, 1994). The structure and dynamics of small mammal populations in general reflects variations in the demographic attributes of the individuals in that population as they interact with the biotic and abiotic factors of the environment (Happold & Happold, 1991; Skupski, 1995). Consequently, one would expect habitat characteristics to have an effect on population dynamics of small mammals and this has been demonstrated in many studies (August, 1983; Zollner & Lima, 1997). In the tropics, with continuing deforestation, many natural habitats are drastically altered giving rise to patches of natural forest that are often surrounded by agricultural land or human settlements. This paper investigates the variability of population densities of five rodent taxa across habitats subject to varying levels of human disturbance, in the Sinharaja rainforest in Sri Lanka. The Sinharaja forest is located in the wet zone of Sri Lanka, between 6021'-6026'N & 80021'-80034'E. The vegetation of the northwestern section of the rainforest, where this study was conducted, is classified as lowland wet evergreen forest. The forest was designated a Biosphere Reserve under UNESCO’s Global Network of Biosphere Reserves. Subsequently, UNESCO declared it as a Natural World Heritage. The five rodent taxa investigated are the endemic species Srilankamys ohiensis and Mus mayori, a non-endemic species Mus booduga and two subspecies of the non-endemic species Ratus rattus, namely, R. r. kandianus and R. r. kelaarti. METHODOLOGY Data from a 13-month trapping regime was used to compare the population densities of the five selected murids in different habitat types in Sinharaja. Four major habitat types were selected, namely, unlogged forest, consisting of pristine closed forest with a relatively dense canopy and trees of large height and girth; forest that had been selectively logged in the 1970s (called logged forest); border areas of the forest that had earlier been cleared, cultivated with cash crops and subsequently abandoned for several years and now in secondary scrub jungle (called abandoned habitats) and border areas that were cleared and is used for raising permanent plantations of pine, rubber, tea or cinnamon, and now having monocrops of these species (called plantation).

Impact of habitat disturbance on the distribution of endemic species of small mammals and birds in a tropical rain forest in Sri Lanka

We tested whether species endemic to Sri Lanka were less able than non-endemics to tolerate disturbed habitats. Small mammals were surveyed in four habitat types along a disturbance gradient (unlogged forest, selectively logged forest, cultivated areas and areas abandoned after cultivation) within and around the Sinharaja rain forest in south-west Sri Lanka. Twenty 90-m×40-m plots were live trapped in each of these habitat types. Twelve taxa: nine rodents (Srilankamys ohiensis, Rattus rattus kelaarti, R. r. kandianus, Mus mayori, M. cervicolor, Bandicota indica, Funambulus layardi, F. sublineatus and F. palmarum) and three insectivores (Crocidura miya, Suncus zeylanicus and Feroculus feroculus) were recorded. Of these, five were endemic to Sri Lanka at the species level (species confined to the island) and six at subspecies level (subspecies confined to the island; other subspecies occurring on the Indian subcontinent). Species richness of small mammals decreased with the magnitude of forest disturbance. The endemic species selectively utilized sites within the forest whilst the majority of the other taxa used both forest and non-forest habitat types or were restricted to the latter. Bird surveys were carried out in the same plots, using sightings and calls. Sixty-six bird species were recorded, of which 21 were endemic species. Twenty endemic bird species preferentially used sites within the forest. The findings suggest that the forest-dwelling endemic species of both small mammal and bird encounter difficulties in tolerating modified landscapes, whilst other taxa are less affected. This highlights the vulnerability of endemic species to forest conversion.

Estimating the demand for non-timber forest products among rural communities: a case study from the Sinharaja Rain Forest region, Sri Lanka

Lack of adequate knowledge on forest-people interaction is an important reason for the failure of many conservation policies. This study focuses on the behavior of peripheral communities towards non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting by estimating the demand functions for NTFP. The paper develops a theoretical model for deriving the shadow price for NTFP using time allocation among different economic activities. Then it tests the competitive time allocation hypothesis between NTFP extraction and tea plantations, the predominant agricultural sector in the vicinity of Sinharaja rain forest. Results provide statistical evidence for the existence of competitive time allocation between tea plantations and NTFP extraction. Own-price elasticities are consistently inelastic, except for one product. As indicated by the inelastic responses, pricing policies may not be very useful in manipulating subsistence NTFP extraction. Repeating similar studies for commercial NTFPs is encouraged.

Litter Decomposition in a Lowland Rain Forest and a Deforested Area in Sri Lanka

Litter Decomposition in a Lowland Rain Forest and a Deforested Area in Sri Lanka