Single-junction Photovoltaic Cells Research Articles

A generic concept to overcome bandgap limitations for designing highly efficient multi-junction photovoltaic cells.

The multi-junction concept is the most relevant approach to overcome the Shockley–Queisser limit for single-junction photovoltaic cells. The record efficiencies of several types of solar technologies are held by series-connected tandem configurations. However, the stringent current-matching criterion presents primarily a material challenge and permanently requires developing and processing novel semiconductors with desired bandgaps and thicknesses. Here we report a generic concept to alleviate this limitation. By integrating series- and parallel-interconnections into a triple-junction configuration, we find significantly relaxed material selection and current-matching constraints. To illustrate the versatile applicability of the proposed triple-junction concept, organic and organic-inorganic hybrid triple-junction solar cells are constructed by printing methods. High fill factors up to 68% without resistive losses are achieved for both organic and hybrid triple-junction devices. Series/parallel triple-junction cells with organic, as well as perovskite-based subcells may become a key technology to further advance the efficiency roadmap of the existing photovoltaic technologies.

Optical refrigeration for ultra-efficient photovoltaics

The Shockley-Queisser (SQ) efficiency limit for single-junction photovoltaic cell (PV) is to a great extent due to inherent heat dissipation accompanying the quantum process of electro-chemical potential generation. Concepts such as solar thermophotovoltaics 1,2,3 (STPV) and thermo-photonics 4 aim to harness this dissipated heat, claiming very high theoretical limit. In practice, none of these concepts have been experimentally proven to overcome the SQ limit, mainly due to the very high operating temperatures, which significantly challenge electro-optical devices. In contrast to the above concepts for harnessing thermal emission at thermal equilibrium, Photoluminescence (PL) is a fundamental light-matter interaction under non-thermal equilibrium, which conventionally involves the absorption of energetic photon, thermalization and the emission of a red-shifted photon. Conversely, in optical-refrigeration the absorption of low energy photon is followed by endothermic-PL of energetic photon 5,6 . Both aspects were mainly studied where thermal population is far weaker than photonic excitation, obscuring the generalization of PL and thermal emissions. Here we experimentally study endothermic-PL at high temperatures 7 . In accordance with theory, we show how PL photon rate is conserved with temperature increase, while each photon is blue shifted. Further rise in temperature leads to an abrupt transition to thermal emission where the photon rate increases sharply. We also show how endothermic-PL generates orders of magnitude more energetic photons than thermal emission at similar temperatures. Relying on these observations, we propose and study thermally enhanced PL (TEPL) for highly efficient solar-energy conversion. Here, solar radiation is absorbed by a low-bandgap PL material. The dissipated heat is emitted by endothermic PL, and harvested by a higher-bandgap photovoltaic cell. While such device operates at much lower temperatures than STPV, the theoretical efficiencies approach 70%, bringing its realization into reach.

Analysis of Thermal Losses for a Variety of Single-Junction Photovoltaic Cells: An Interesting Means of Thermoelectric Heat Recovery

Exploitation of solar energy conversion has become a fundamental aspect of satisfying a growing demand for energy. Thus, improvement of the efficiency of conversion in photovoltaic (PV) devices is highly desirable to further promote this source. Because it is well known that the most relevant efficiency constraint, especially for single-junction solar cells, is unused heat within the device, hybrid thermo-photovoltaic systems seem promising . Among several hybrid solutions proposed in the literature, coupling of thermoelectric and PV devices seems one of the most interesting. Taking full advantage of this technology requires proper definition and analysis of the thermal losses occurring in PV cells. In this communication we propose a novel analysis of such losses, decoupling source-dependent and absorber-dependent losses. This analysis enables an evaluation of the actual recoverable amount of energy, depending on the absorber used in the PV cell. It shows that for incoming solar irradiation of $$1000\,\hbox {W}/\hbox {m}^{2}$$ , and depending on the choice of material, the maximum available thermal power ranges from $$380\,\hbox {W}/\hbox {m}^{2}$$ (for single-crystal silicon) to $$130\,\hbox {W}/\hbox {m}^{2}$$ (for amorphous silicon).

Solution-processed parallel tandem polymer solar cells using silver nanowires as intermediate electrode.

Tandem architecture is the most relevant concept to overcome the efficiency limit of single-junction photovoltaic solar cells. Series-connected tandem polymer solar cells (PSCs) have advanced rapidly during the past decade. In contrast, the development of parallel-connected tandem cells is lagging far behind due to the big challenge in establishing an efficient interlayer with high transparency and high in-plane conductivity. Here, we report all-solution fabrication of parallel tandem PSCs using silver nanowires as intermediate charge collecting electrode. Through a rational interface design, a robust interlayer is established, enabling the efficient extraction and transport of electrons from subcells. The resulting parallel tandem cells exhibit high fill factors of ∼60% and enhanced current densities which are identical to the sum of the current densities of the subcells. These results suggest that solution-processed parallel tandem configuration provides an alternative avenue toward high performance photovoltaic devices.

Maximum Theoretical Efficiency Limit of Photovoltaic Devices: Effect of Band Structure on Excited State Entropy.

The Shockley-Queisser analysis provides a theoretical limit for the maximum energy conversion efficiency of single junction photovoltaic cells. But besides the semiconductor bandgap no other semiconductor properties are considered in the analysis. Here, we show that the maximum conversion efficiency is limited further by the excited state entropy of the semiconductors. The entropy loss can be estimated with the modified Sackur-Tetrode equation as a function of the curvature of the bands, the degeneracy of states near the band edges, the illumination intensity, the temperature, and the band gap. The application of the second law of thermodynamics to semiconductors provides a simple explanation for the observed high performance of group IV, III-V, and II-VI materials with strong covalent bonding and for the lower efficiency of transition metal oxides containing weakly interacting metal d orbitals. The model also predicts efficient energy conversion with quantum confined and molecular structures in the presence of a light harvesting mechanism.

Analyzing carrier escape mechanisms in InAs/GaAs quantum dot p-i-n junction photovoltaic cells

Intermediate band solar cells (IBSCs) are third-generation photovoltaic (PV) devices that can harvest sub-bandgap photons normally not absorbed in a single-junction solar cell. Despite the large increase in total solar energy conversion efficiency predicted for IBSC devices, substantial challenges remain to realizing these efficiency gains in practical devices. We evaluate carrier escape mechanisms in an InAs/GaAs quantum dot intermediate band p-i-n junction PV device using photocurrent measurements under sub-bandgap illumination. We show that sub-bandgap photons generate photocurrent through a two-photon absorption process, but that carrier trapping and retrapping limit the overall photocurrent. The results identify a key obstacle that must be overcome in order to realize intermediate band devices that outperform single junction photovoltaic cells.

Exceeding the solar cell Shockley–Queisser limit via thermal up-conversion of low-energy photons

Maximum efficiency of ideal single-junction photovoltaic (PV) cells is limited to 33% (for 1sun illumination) by intrinsic losses such as band edge thermalization, radiative recombination, and inability to absorb below-bandgap photons. This intrinsic thermodynamic limit, named after Shockley and Queisser (S–Q), can be exceeded by utilizing low-energy photons either via their electronic up-conversion or via the thermophotovoltaic (TPV) conversion process. However, electronic up-conversion systems have extremely low efficiencies, and practical temperature considerations limit the operation of TPV converters to the narrow-gap PV cells. Here we develop a conceptual design of a hybrid TPV platform, which exploits thermal up-conversion of low-energy photons and is compatible with conventional silicon PV cells by using spectral and directional selectivity of the up-converter. The hybrid platform offers sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiency exceeding that imposed by the S–Q limit on the corresponding PV cells across a broad range of bandgap energies, under low optical concentration (1–300suns), operating temperatures in the range 900–1700K, and in simple flat panel designs. We demonstrate maximum conversion efficiency of 73% under illumination by non-concentrated sunlight. A detailed analysis of non-ideal hybrid platforms that allows for up to 15% of absorption/re-emission losses yields limiting efficiency value of 45% for Si PV cells.

High Open Circuit Voltage Solution-Processed Tandem Organic Photovoltaic Cells Employing a Bottom Cell Using a New Medium Band Gap Semiconducting Polymer

Two donor–acceptor (D–A) copolymers, based on the donor unit TIPS substituted benzodithiophene (TIPSBDT) and the acceptor quinoxaline-based units with or without fluorine substitution (PTIPSBDT-DTQX and PTIPSBDT-DFDTQX), were designed and synthesized as a donor material for bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) photovoltaic cells. The introduction of F atoms with high electron affinity to be quinoxailine moieties is effective in further lowering both the HOMO and LUMO energy levels of PTIPSBDT-DFDTQX to attain higher open-circuit voltage (Voc). Single junction photovoltaic cells were fabricated, and the polymers:PC71BM active layer morphology was optimized by adding 1,8-diiodooctane (DIO) as an additive. In a single layer photovoltaic device, they showed power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 2–6%. The solution process inverted tandem photovoltaic cells, in which two photovoltaic cells with different absorption characteristics are linked to use a wider range of the solar spectrum, were fabricated with each layer pro...

Increased photovoltaic power output via diffractive spectrum separation.

In this Letter, we report the preliminary demonstration of a new paradigm for photovoltaic power generation that utilizes a broadband diffractive-optical element (BDOE) to efficiently separate sunlight into laterally spaced spectral bands. These bands are then absorbed by single-junction photovoltaic cells, whose band gaps correspond to the incident spectral bands. We designed such BDOEs by utilizing a modified version of the direct-binary-search algorithm. Gray scale lithography was used to fabricate these multilevel optics. They were experimentally characterized with an overall optical efficiency of 70% over a wavelength range of 350-1100 nm, which was in excellent agreement with simulation predictions. Finally, two prototype devices were assembled: one with a pair of copper indium gallium selenide based photovoltaic devices, and another with GaAs and c-Si photovoltaic devices. These devices demonstrated an increase in output peak electrical power of ∼ 42% and ∼ 22%, respectively, under white-light illumination. Because of the optical versatility and manufacturability of the proposed BDOEs, the reported spectrum-splitting approach provides a new approach toward low-cost solar power.

Performance of a split-spectrum photovoltaic device operating under time-varying spectral conditions

The performance of a split-spectrum photovoltaic device using a lateral array of single-junction photovoltaic cells and holographic films to carry out spectral splitting and concentration is analyzed. The performance of an idealized device is determined under time-varying spectral conditions. Detailed balance efficiency maxima are calculated at a concentration of 100 suns for 2-, 3-, and 4-cell arrays, optimized for the AM 1.5 direct-plus-circumsolar spectrum and operating under a range of clear-sky spectra generated using SMARTS 2.9.5 for a location near Flagstaff, Arizona. Operating efficiencies of these arrays are examined for two electrical configurations: one in which the cells are assumed to remain electrically isolated and a second in which the cells are placed in series. Gains in the operating efficiency are demonstrated for the isolated configuration with respect to the series configuration. These vary with cell count and over the course of the year, ranging from 7.3% in June to 10.3% in December for a 2-cell array, from 6.2% in June to 10.8% in December for a 3-cell array, and from 7.0% in June to 12.1% in December for a 4-cell array.

Comparative Study on Manufacturability of Selective Emitter and Double Printing on Mono-Si PV Cells

ABSTRACTSelective emitter structure has long been regarded as a good and relatively simple approach to improve the energy conversion efficiency of Si wafer-based single-junction photovoltaic (PV) cells. Recently emerged double printing method, on the other hand, potentially has the capability of improving the efficiency with no requirement for device structure modification. The manufacturability of these two approaches has been studied on a mass-production platform at JA Solar recently with large scale sampling. The experimental results collected from over two hundred thousand cells demonstrated that both approaches are capable of achieving significant conversion-efficiency gain in a cost-effective way with high yield rate on the PV industry commonly used mass production platform currently adopted by the vast majority of cell manufacturers

Design and global optimization of high-efficiency thermophotovoltaic systems

Despite their great promise, small experimental thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems at 1000 K generally exhibit extremely low power conversion efficiencies (approximately 1%), due to heat losses such as thermal emission of undesirable mid-wavelength infrared radiation. Photonic crystals (PhC) have the potential to strongly suppress such losses. However, PhC-based designs present a set of non-convex optimization problems requiring efficient objective function evaluation and global optimization algorithms. Both are applied to two example systems: improved micro-TPV generators and solar thermal TPV systems. Micro-TPV reactors experience up to a 27-fold increase in their efficiency and power output; solar thermal TPV systems see an even greater 45-fold increase in their efficiency (exceeding the Shockley-Quiesser limit for a single-junction photovoltaic cell).

Photon-enhanced thermionic emission for solar concentrator systems

Solar-energy conversion usually takes one of two forms: the 'quantum' approach, which uses the large per-photon energy of solar radiation to excite electrons, as in photovoltaic cells, or the 'thermal' approach, which uses concentrated sunlight as a thermal-energy source to indirectly produce electricity using a heat engine. Here we present a new concept for solar electricity generation, photon-enhanced thermionic emission, which combines quantum and thermal mechanisms into a single physical process. The device is based on thermionic emission of photoexcited electrons from a semiconductor cathode at high temperature. Temperature-dependent photoemission-yield measurements from GaN show strong evidence for photon-enhanced thermionic emission, and calculated efficiencies for idealized devices can exceed the theoretical limits of single-junction photovoltaic cells. The proposed solar converter would operate at temperatures exceeding 200 degrees C, enabling its waste heat to be used to power a secondary thermal engine, boosting theoretical combined conversion efficiencies above 50%.

Detailed balance analysis of solar thermophotovoltaic systems made up of single junction photovoltaic cells and broadband thermal emitters

This paper presents a detailed balance analysis of a solar thermophotovoltaic system comprising an optical concentrator, a cut-off broad band absorber and emitter, and single junction photovoltaic cells working at the radiative limit with an integrated back-side reflector in a configuration in which the cells enclose the emitter to form an optical cavity. The analysis includes the effect of multiple variables on the system performance (efficiency and electrical power density), such as the concentration factor, the emitter-to-absorber area ratio, the absorber and emitter cut-off energies, the semiconductor band-gap energy and the voltage of the cells. Furthermore, the effect of optical losses within the cavity such as those attributed to a back-side reflector with reflectivity lower than one or to a semi-open optical cavity is also included. One of our main conclusions is that for a planar system configuration (the emitter, the cells and the absorber have the same area) the combination of low concentration and a spectrally selective absorber provides the highest system efficiencies. The efficiency limit of this kind of systems is 45.3%, which exceeds the Shockley–Queisser limit of 40.8% (obtained for a single junction solar cell, directly illuminated by the sun, working under maximum concentration and with an optimized band-gap). This system also has the great benefit of requiring a very low concentration factor of 4.4 suns.

AlGaAs/GaAs photovoltaic cells with an array of InGaAs QDs

Specific features of the fabrication of AlGaAs/GaAs single-junction photovoltaic cells with an array of quantum dots (QDs) by molecular beam epitaxy have been studied. It was shown for the first time that, in principle, vertically coupled QDs can be incorporated, with no dislocations formed, into the structure of pho- tovoltaic cells without any noticeable deterioration of the structural quality of the p-n junction. Owing to the additional absorption of the long-wavelength part of the solar spectrum in the QD medium and to the subse- quent effective separation of photogenerated carriers, a ~1% increase in the short-circuit current density J sc was demonstrated for the first time in the world for photovoltaic cells with QDs. The maximum efficiency of the photovoltaic cells was 18.3% in conversion of the unconcentrated ground level solar spectrum AM1.5G.

Up-and Down-Conversion,and Multi-Exciton Generation for Improving Solar Cells:A Reality Check

AbstractBecause conventional photovoltaic (PV) cells are threshold systems in terms of optical absorption, “photon management“is an obvious way to improve their performance.Calculations to optimize photon utilization in a single-junction PV cell show ˜1.4 eV to be the optimal bandgap for terrestrial solar to electrical power conversion. For Si, with a slightly sub-optimal gap, continuous efforts have yielded single-junction laboratory cells, quite close to the theoretical limit.One of the repeatedly proposed directions to improve photon management is that of up- and down-conversion of photon energy. In up-conversion two photons with energy hv < EG (the band gap) create one photon with hv > EG, while in down-conversion one photon with energy hv > 2EG, yields two photons with energy hv > EG.Multi-exciton generation (MEG), although not a "photon management" process, can achieve effects like down-conversion, which, though, is more limited than MEG. In MEG one photon with energy hv > nEG yields n electron-hole pairs with energy EG. Because MEG has clear advantages over down-conversion, in the following we will, instead of considering both, consider MEG.We find that a straightforward analysis of this approach to “photon management” for a single junction cell under the detailed balance limit shows clearly that, even if we assume (highly unrealistic) 100% efficient up-conversion and MEG, a new theoretical PV conversion limit of 49 %, instead of 31% is arrived at, a maximum possible gain of ≈60%. The main attractive feature of the combination of up-conversion and MEG is a significant broadening of the optimal band-gap range. Rough estimates for the very highest possibly feasible efficiencies for up-conversion and MEG (25% and 70% respectively), yield at most slightly less than 40% PV conversion efficiency, i.e., only a ˜25% gain over conventional single band gap semiconductor.These results show that up-conversion or MEG are fascinating scientific areas of research, whose implementation can indeed improve PV cell performance. However, truly formidable challenges need to be met to have UC + MEG lead to the type of radical decrease in the (cost)/ (efficiency × lifetime × yield) ratio that we need to allow large-scale economic introduction of PV cells. Parallel pursuit of alternative approaches to improved photon management, such as, for example, lowering the costs of arrangements with multiple solar absorbers and/or multi-junction systems, appears, therefore, critical for the future of PV.

Multiple Exciton Generation in Colloidal Silicon Nanocrystals

Multiple exciton generation (MEG) is a process whereby multiple electron-hole pairs, or excitons, are produced upon absorption of a single photon in semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs) and represents a promising route to increased solar conversion efficiencies in single-junction photovoltaic cells. We report for the first time MEG yields in colloidal Si NCs using ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy. We find the threshold photon energy for MEG in 9.5 nm diameter Si NCs (effective band gap identical with Eg = 1.20 eV) to be 2.4 +/- 0.1Eg and find an exciton-production quantum yield of 2.6 +/- 0.2 excitons per absorbed photon at 3.4Eg. While MEG has been previously reported in direct-gap semiconductor NCs of PbSe, PbS, PbTe, CdSe, and InAs, this represents the first report of MEG within indirect-gap semiconductor NCs. Furthermore, MEG is found in relatively large Si NCs (diameter equal to about twice the Bohr radius) such that the confinement energy is not large enough to produce a large blue-shift of the band gap (only 80 meV), but the Coulomb interaction is sufficiently enhanced to produce efficient MEG. Our findings are of particular importance because Si dominates the photovoltaic solar cell industry, presents no problems regarding abundance and accessibility within the Earth's crust, and poses no significant environmental problems regarding toxicity.

Wide-bandgap CIAS thin-film photovoltaics with transparent back contacts for next generation single and multi-junction devices

This paper discusses the performance, testing, and problems of copper indium aluminum diselenide (CIAS) thin-film devices with CIAS co-evaporated in a large-area moving substrate deposition system on transparent back contact technology. The CIAS alloy is being developed for use as a wide-bandgap radiation-resistant semiconductor for application as both a high-voltage single-junction photovoltaic (PV) cell using low-cost thin-films on lightweight flexible substrates, and as a top cell in efficient two-terminal monolithic tandem (multi-junction) PV cells. After significant development, it appears that conventionally formed CIAS devices experience a drop-off in performance with CIAS bandgaps above 1.5 eV, in addition to decreased zero bias depletion widths, and increased J L(V) effects with increasing CIAS bandgap. However, the performance drop-off is above the single-junction optimum bandgap, and higher-bandgap devices have not been tested with better-matched buffer layers. This paper also discusses CIAS devices with transparent back contacts. A wide-bandgap CIAS device with infra-red (IR) transparent back contacts and substrates can offer better performance over standard CIGS devices by being better tuned to the optimum bandgap for AM0 solar spectrum, reduced ohmic losses, and temperature dependencies compared to that typical of low-bandgap CIS alloys, reduced operating temperature with better IR transparency, the option of backside light collection with a suitable visibly transparent substrate, and is a precursor for use as a top cell in a monolithic tandem device configuration. CIAS devices with transparent back contacts show no loss in performance compared to standard Mo back contacts.

III-Vs advance on silicon

With a plentiful (and free) supply of 1 kW/m 2 of sunlight at the earth's surface, the market for solar cells for terrestrial applications is expected to expand rapidly as the cost of power from conventional sources rises and, due to technology advances and economies of scale, the cost of solar cells falls. So far most cells have been made of single-crystal silicon. However, GaAs currently holds the efficiency record for single-junction photovoltaic cells [I], with further advances using other III-Vs being made.