Single Heads Of Households Research Articles

Racial and socioeconomic disparities in breast milk feedings in US neonatal intensive care units.

Very low birth weight (VLBW; <1500 g birth weight) infants are substantially more likely to be born to black than to non-black mothers, predisposing them to potentially preventable morbidities that increase the risk for costly lifelong health problems. Mothers’ own milk (MOM) may be considered the ultimate “personalized medicine” since milk composition and bioactive components vary among mothers and multiple milk constituents provide specific protection based on shared exposures between mother and infant. MOM feedings reduce the risks and associated costs of prematurity-associated morbidities, with the greatest reduction afforded by MOM through to NICU discharge. Although black and non-black mothers have similar lactation goals and initiation rates, black VLBW infants are half as likely to receive MOM at NICU discharge in the United States. Black mothers are significantly more likely to be low-income, single heads of household and have more children in the home, increasing the burden of MOM provision. Although rarely considered, the out-of-pocket and opportunity costs associated with providing MOM for VLBW infants are especially onerous for black mothers. When MOM is not available, the NICU assumes the costs of inferior substitutes for MOM, contributing further to disparate outcomes. Novel strategies to mitigate these disparities are urgently needed.Impact Mother’s own milk exemplifies personalized medicine through its unique biologic activity.Hospital factors and social determinants of health are associated with mother’s own milk feedings for very low-birth-weight infants in the neonatal intensive care unit. Notably, out-of-pocket and opportunity costs associated with providing mother’s own milk are borne by mothers. Conceptualizing mother’s own milk feedings as an integral part of NICU care requires consideration of who bears the costs of MOM provision—the mother or the NICU?

Health Literacy, Self-Efficacy and Knowledge of Sickle Cell Disease Among Caregivers

Introduction Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a hereditary red blood cell disorder characterized by severe anemia, acute and painful vaso-occlusive crises and progressive organ failure. Success of health management of children with SCD is highly contingent on caregivers' capabilities. Caregivers of SCD affected children must perform a variety of tasks including communication with healthcare providers, reading and understanding of health information, interpretation of acute symptoms and administration of medication and complex decision making with regard to treatment options. A construct which describes the knowledge and competences of persons to meet the complex demands of health is 'health literacy' (HL) (1, 2). The measurement and assessment of HL is of growing importance due to expected and reported relationships between inadequate HL and health outcomes (3-5). In addition, caregivers with higher HL levels feel more confident in their ability to perform caregiving tasks, e.g. have a higher self-efficacy, often associated with higher quality of life (6, 7). Information on literacy levels and the relationship between HL, disease knowledge and self-efficacy may guide interventions in comprehensive SCD care. The aims of this study were to: (a) gain insight into levels of HL in caregivers of children with SCD using objective and subjective measures and to (b) assess the relationship between HL, caregivers self-efficacy' in communication with healthcare professionals and knowledge of SCD on different topics related to the illness. This abstract reports preliminary results. Methods In this cross-sectional, observational study, we included caregivers of children with SCD who attended the outpatient clinic of the Sickle Cell Comprehensive Care Center in the Erasmus Medical Center for a routine follow-up visit. Caregivers included in the study had to be able to communicate verbally in Dutch with professionals. HL was measured using the Short Assessment of Health Literacy in Dutch (SAHL-D) (8, 9); self-reported HL was evaluated by the Set of Brief Screening Questions (SBSQ) (10, 11). Self-efficacy was measured using the Perceived Self-Efficacy in Caregiver-Patient Interactions (PECPI) scale (12). Knowledge of SCD was assessed using a structured 13-item questionnaire (SCD-K) based on information and education provided in our clinic. Since data were not-normally distributed, they were analyzed using non-parametric statistics. Results To date, a total of 42 caregivers were included. Study inclusion will continue until at least 75 caregivers have been included. Demographics are presented in Table 1. Caregivers were mainly the child's mother (81.0%) often the single head of household (66.7%). The mean age of caregivers was 34.4 years. Educational level ranged from never attended school to post college Almost a quarter (23.8%) of caregivers was born in the Netherlands, others the rest were non-western migrants (76.2%). 78.6% of caregivers had low HL according to the SAHL-D. Caregivers with lower HL were more likely to have lower education (p=0.012) and to have been born outside the Netherlands (p=0.002). Only four caregivers (9.5%) reported having difficulties in understanding and applying health information (measured by SBSQ). The correlation between the SAHL-D and the SBSQ scores was weak (r=0.39). Mean scores on the SBSQ and PECPI were high, indicating that caregivers perceived their abilities for self-efficacy and their ability to read and understand medical information as quite high. Responses to individual SCD-K items however suggest large knowledge deficits: only 64.3% of caregivers knew which temperature is considered as fever [&gt;38.0 °C or &gt;38.5 °C] and only 14.3% was aware which risk factors are able to provoke sickle cell crises. The relationship between literacy status and item responses on SCD-K assessment scale was also examined. Caregivers with low literacy scored significantly lower on almost every individual item. Discussion Inadequate HL is highly prevalent in caregivers of children with SCD. Not being born in the Netherlands and lower education levels are strong predictors of low HL. Our study suggests that healthcare professionals should be attentive to possible low HL. In addition, these results underline that health information should be tailored to the HL skills and specific context of patients and their families. Disclosures Cnossen: NWO: Other: Governmental grants , ZonMW, Innovation fund and Nationale Wetenschapsagenda 2018; Roche: Other: Travel Grants; Takeda: Other: Travel Grants, Research Funding; Shire: Other: Travel Grants, Research Funding; Baxter: Other: Travel Grants, Research Funding; Sobi: Research Funding; CSL Behring: Other: Travel Grants, Research Funding; Nordic Pharma: Research Funding; Novo Nordisk: Research Funding; Pfizer: Other: Travel Grants, Research Funding; Bayer: Other: Travel Grants, Research Funding.

The Home Food Environment and a Young Child's Weight Status

The majority of a young child's diet is from foods available in the home. We investigated how a home's nutritional profile associates with a young child's weight. Data were from a national household panel completed 2006‐2008. Participants scanned all foods and beverages purchased for the home with a handheld UPC‐barcode scanner and data were linked to a nutritional database. Households completed a survey including demographics, weight and height for all household members. Analyses were limited to families with young children 2‐12 years old with a year of purchase data and complete anthropometric data (N=4,276). A series of adjusted logistic regression models fit the odds of a young child in the home being overweight (蠅85th age and sex adjusted BMI percentile) on the nutritional profile of the home. Households purchased 985 calories in packaged foods per capita daily. Total calories purchased increased with head of household weight status. Thirty‐nine percent of homes had at least one young child who was overweight. In a logistic regression model adjusted for household size, dual vs. single head of household, head of household weight status and total protein and total calories in the home, total levels of fat in the home was statistically, positively associated with a child being overweight. Results were similar when further adjusting for total levels of sodium in the home and sodium was statistically, positively associated with a child being overweight: aOR 4th vs. 1st quartile 1.73 (p=0.001). In conclusion, a greater availability of foods high in fat and sodium in the home may be obesogenic for young children.Funded by Norris Cotton Cancer Center.

School-Based Nutrition Programs Are Associated with Reduced Child Food Insecurity over Time among Mexican-Origin Mother-Child Dyads In Texas Border Colonias

AbstractIn 2011, an estimated 50.2 million adults and children lived in US households with food insecurity, a condition associated with adverse health effects across the life span. Relying solely on parent proxy may underreport the true prevalence of child food insecurity. The present study sought to understand mothers' and children's (aged 6–11 y) perspectives and experiences of child food insecurity and its seasonal volatility, including the effects of school-based and summertime nutrition programs. Forty-eight Mexican-origin mother-child dyads completed standardized, Spanish-language food-security instruments during 2 in-home visits between July 2010 and March 2011. Multilevel longitudinal logistic regression measured change in food security while accounting for correlation in repeated measurements by using a nested structure. Cohen's κ statistic assessed dyadic discordance in child food insecurity. School-based nutrition programs reduced the odds of child food insecurity by 74% [OR = 0.26 (P < 0.01)], showcasing the programs' impact on the condition. Single head of household was associated with increased odds of child food insecurity [OR = 4.63 (P = 0.03)]. Fair dyadic agreement of child food insecurity was observed [κ = 0.21 (P = 0.02)]. Obtaining accurate prevalence rates and understanding differences of intrahousehold food insecurity necessitate measurement at multiple occasions throughout the year while considering children's perceptions and experiences of food insecurity in addition to parental reports.

School‐based nutrition programs are associated with reduced child food insecurity in a longitudinal study among Mexican‐origin mother child dyads in Texas border colonias

In 2011, nearly 3.9 million U.S. households with children experienced child food insecurity (CFI) as reported by parents. Yet, proxy reports may underestimate the true CFI prevalence. The study objectives were 1) understand mothers’ and children's (6–11 y) perspectives and experiences of CFI and its seasonal volatility, including the role of school‐based nutrition programs (SNP) and 2) assess CFI discordance among forty eight Mexican‐origin dyads in Texas border colonias. Promotora‐researchers administered standardized Spanish‐language food security instruments to dyads at two points in time during July 2010‐March 2011. Multilevel longitudinal logistic regression measured volatility in CFI while Cohen's kappa (κ) assessed discordance. SNP reduced odds of CFI by 74% (Odds ratio (OR) = 0.26, P &lt; 0.01). Single head of household and Mexican ethnicity were associated with increased odds of CFI (OR = 4.63, P = 0.03) and (OR = 4.47, P &lt; 0.01), respectively. Fair dyadic agreement was observed (κ = 0.21, P = 0.02). CFI lessened from summer to school year while SNP played a significant role. Mothers’ and children's perspectives and experiences of CFI ought to be measured at multiple occasions to obtain an accurate prevalence of the preventable condition.Grant Funding Source: Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Healthy Eating Research

Not a Suburban Soccer Mom? Political Engagement Among Lower SES Women

AbstractAnalysis of recent Census data by the National Women's Law Center indicates that poverty is worse than ever, especially for women. While studies of socioeconomic status and participation as well as social networks and poverty are quite numerous, there has been little systematic quantitative study of the interaction of poverty and gender on social networks and participation in collective action. We ask whether the paths to social capital and participation are different for poor women than for their non‐poor counterparts. And, are poor women different from poor men? The types of social networking in which the poor and non‐poor may participate should logically be very different: More formal organizations often require significant resources for participation (e.g., sports clubs). Further, poor individuals often rely on informal networks of assistance and cooperation, but women are most reliant on such networks because they are most likely to be single heads of household. Certainly, scholars suggest that women are more likely to engage in informal networking and have established social capital, making voting more likely among women (Harell, 2009), but to our knowledge, scholars have not compared those of low and higher incomes in terms of their types of social capital building. We use the Current Population Survey Civic Engagement Supplement and the Voting Supplement (2010) to examine civic engagement of citizens, with a theoretical eye toward understanding the differences in participation between low‐income women and higher‐income women. The analyses herein suggest differences in social capital among women of different income levels. The overall findings of this research contradict what we originally theorized, that income drives social capital–creating avenues, yet add a new and important understanding to how social capital may be created and what influence it might have on political engagement.

The Social Legacy of AIDS: Fertility Aspirations Among HIV-Affected Women in Uganda

We investigated the impact of HIV status on fertility desires in Uganda. We surveyed 1594 women aged 18 to 49 years visiting outpatient services at Mbarara Regional Hospital, from May through August 2010. Of these, 59.7% were HIV-positive; 96.4% of HIV-positive women were using antiretroviral therapy (ART). We used logistic regression models to examine relationships between HIV status and fertility desires, marital status, household structure, educational attainment, and household income. Among married women, HIV-positive status was significantly associated with a lower likelihood of desiring more children (27.7% vs 56.4% of HIV-negative women; χ(2) = 39.97; P < .001). The difference remained highly significant net of age, parity, son parity, foster children, education, or household income. HIV-positive women were more likely to be poor, unmarried, single heads of household, in second marriages (if married), living with an HIV-positive spouse, and supporting foster children. We found a strong association between positive HIV status and lower fertility aspirations among married women in Uganda, irrespective of ART status. Although the increasing availability of ART is a tremendous public health achievement, women affected by HIV have numerous continuing social needs.

Not a Suburban Soccer Mom? Political Engagement Among Lower SES Women

Analysis of recent Census data by the National Women’s Law Center indicates that poverty is worse than ever, especially for women. While studies of socioeconomic status and participation as well as social networks and poverty are quite numerous, there has been little systematic quantitative study of the interaction of poverty and gender on social networks and participation in collective action. We ask whether the paths to social capital and participation are different for poor women than their non-poor counterparts? And, are poor women different from poor men? The types of social networking in which the poor and non-poor may participate should logically be very different: more formal organizations often require significant resources for participation (e.g., sports clubs). Further, poor individuals often rely on informal networks of assistance and cooperation, but women are most reliant on such networks because they are most likely to be single heads of household. Certainly, scholars suggest that women are more likely to engage in informal networking and have established such social capital makes voting more likely among women (Harrell, 2009), but to our knowledge, scholars have not compared those of low and higher incomes in terms of their types of social capital building. We use the Current Population Survey Civic Engagement Supplement and the Voting Supplement (2010) to examine civic engagement of citizens, with a theoretical eye toward understanding the differences in participation between low-income women and higher-income income women. Preliminary analyses suggest differences in social capital among women of different income levels. The overall findings of this research contradict what was originally theorized, that income drives social capital-creating avenues, yet add a new and important understanding to how social capital may be created and what influence this might have on political engagement.

The impact of neo-liberalism on water and sanitation provision in the informal settlements: Towards the re-enforcement of gendered roles or democratic emancipation?

abstract This Article examines the situation of poor women who perform reproductive and household labour necessary for survival and the implications of their daily struggle for survival regarding the provision of water and sanitation in the context of two informal settlements, Banana City in Durban and Endlovini in Khayelitsha, Cape Town. Despite the democratisation of water and sanitation through policy, as both a human right and an essential basic need, the provision of access and basic services by the two urban municipalities to meet the needs of the informal settlements remains to say the least minimal, requiring negotiation and a struggle for recognition of tenure by residents. South Africa is a water-scarce society and the provision of basic services in informal settlements is not prioritised as it is an 'unfunded mandate' of the municipalities in which responsibility for functions of national government and provincial government, such as, free water and electricity and informal settlements upgrading have received no additional funding. It is argued that by adopting neo-liberal market policies, state priorities are shifted away from providing the basic necessities such as water and sanitation and the cost is borne unequally by poor women, many of who are unemployed, HIV positive and single heads of households. The Article considers issues pertaining to health and environmental risks within the continuous struggles women endure on a daily basis to sustain what is often a tenuous existence. The authors conclude that water and sanitation provision in South Africa is not gender neutral but gender biased, thus it becomes the basis for the re-enforcement of oppressive gendered roles as opposed to democratic gender emancipation.

Medical Legal Partnerships: A Key Strategy for Addressing Social Determinants of Health

Medical Legal Partnerships: A Key Strategy for Addressing Social Determinants of Health

Abstract B136: Early age at menarche in Mexican American girls: Psychosocial risk factors

Abstract An earlier age at menarche is a risk factor for breast cancer and national statistics indicate that girls of Mexican American descent are continuing to experience a decline in the average age at menarche from 12.4 to 12.0 years. While there is a large body of literature on the factors influencing an early age at menarche in non-Hispanic whites, limited data have been collected on psychosocial and maternal factors contributing to earlier age at menarche among Mexican American girls. Using data from a longitudinal prospective study of smoking initiation among youth of Mexican origin in Houston, Texas, we investigate the role of family life environment, parental marital status and socioeconomic status on age at menarche, after adjustment for recognized covariates such as maternal age at menarche and body mass of the index. Participants (N = 540 girls) in this study were aged 9–13 years at baseline, when information on family life environment and anthropometric measurements were collected. At the final follow-up home visit three years later, data on age at menarche was self-reported while information about education, house ownership and marital status were obtained from the mother of each girl. Using multiple logistic regression analysis, we calculated the odds ratio of specific psychosocial exposures among girls who started menarche early (&amp;lt;12 years) compared to those who started at a later/normal age (≥12 years). Overall, the mean age at menarche was 11.65 years with more than 40% of the girls starting menarche at 11 years or younger. After adjusting for age, body mass index and mother's age at menarche, we found no relationship between maternal education, household ownership, girls' perception of their family life environment as conflict-prone, cohesive, authoritarian, expressive or laissez-faire and age at menarche. In contrast, there was a 2-fold increase in the odds of early menarche among girls whose parents were single heads of households compared to those whose parents were married (OR: 2.03; CI: 1.07–3.87). The mean age at menarche of 11.63 years in our population was younger then previous reports among nationally representative samples of Mexican American girls. In addition, our study provides important information regarding the role of family structure (marital status) on age at menarche and identifies a factor—single parenting—that is a marker for girls who enter menarche early. Although additional research is needed to corroborate our findings, awareness of the impact of fathers' absence and their involvement in their daughters' lives during the early years should be emphasized when addressing factors contributing to age at menarche. Citation Information: Cancer Prev Res 2010;3(1 Suppl):B136.

Housing tenure transitions of older households: Life cycle, demographic, and familial factors

Understanding the housing choices of the older households will grow in importance as the baby boom generation starts to retire. This analysis utilizes a rich longitudinal data set (PSID) to provide insight into the reasons why older households make housing transitions. Because of the richness of the data, this analysis is able to control for life transitions, a household's income and wealth, and connection to one's children in predicting when a homeowner makes a housing transition. The results demonstrate that age is not related directly to housing tenure choice for older households. Instead, having lower health status and being a single head of household is the important predictor of housing tenure transitions. At the same time, very few life changing events immediately lead a homeowner to become a renter, although they do influence the decision to downsize or consumer home equity. Finally, living next to one's children lowers the probability of becoming a renter or downsizing, and having richer children increases the probability of downsizing and thereby consuming one's housing wealth.

Constraints to educational opportunities of orphans: a community-based study from northern Uganda

The objective of this article is to assess constraints on educational opportunities of orphans cared for within the extended family system in Lira district, northern Uganda. The data were collected through: review of school census records; ethnographic fieldwork; in-depth interviews with 21 community leaders, 45 heads of households caring for orphans and 35 orphans. Focus group discussions were held with men and women caring for orphans, community leaders and orphans. A household survey was conducted in 402 households caring for orphans. We found that very poor widows living on less than half a dollar per day head 48% of the households caring for orphans. The elderly heads of households were 3 times more likely to have all the children in their household in schools than the younger ones. Furthermore, the widowed and single heads of households were more likely to have all orphans in school than the married, and households that received external support offered better educational opportunities. Poverty, as indicated by lack of food while at school and heavy involvement of orphans in domestic labour, were identified as major constraints on orphans’ schooling. There is an urgent need to support orphans’ education in northern Uganda beyond the current Universal Primary Education efforts. The most vulnerable households need to be targeted, and the communities need to be sensitized to child labour, school meals and sex abuse.

The information behaviors of rural women in Botswana

This study investigates the information needs and information-seeking behavior of rural women residing in three non-urban villages in Botswana. The total population of the study was divided into two groups, opinion leaders and women residing in the three villages. The women residing in the villages were either single heads of households or married. The family situations that led them to seek information included health, agriculture, employment, family violence, and basic needs for the family. In addition, the women needed information on government aided funding, welfare subsidies and policies, and training. The sources of information used included village nurses, community welfare officers, traditional doctors, other women in the villages, village chiefs, and agricultural demonstrators.

Child-feeding strategies of African American women according to stage of change for fruit and vegetable consumption.

To examine the relationship between child-feeding strategies and the stage of change for fruit and vegetable consumption of low-income African American women. Mothers were asked to think aloud as they shopped for groceries and prepared a meal for their family. Verbalisations were audio-taped and transcribed. Transcripts were coded. Coded segments were sorted according to stage of change of the women who made the verbalisation. Themes were identified and analysed for differences across the stages of change. Child-feeding strategies and factors influencing provision of fruits and vegetables to children were identified through content analysis procedures. Seventy women, aged 18 to 45 years, were classified by stage of change (10 to 18 per stage) based on self-reported intakes of fruits and vegetables and intention to increase intake. Women on average had two to three children less than 12 years of age and tended to be single heads of households, with about half having some college or technical training. According to the women's comments, food preferences of children were important considerations for women in all stages regarding their food choice behaviours. Women in the later stages reported using more positive child-feeding strategies to promote the intake of fruit and vegetables, including positive role-modelling and methods related to food purchasing, preparation and meal planning. Promoting mothers' movement to more advanced stages of change for fruit and vegetable intake may result in the use of more positive child-feeding strategies and therefore contribute to increased fruit and vegetable intake by children.

Women and Gender Equality in Peace Processes: From Women at the Negotiating Table to Postwar Structural Reforms in Guatemala and Somalia

The role of women in conflict resolution and peacebuilding is increasingly emphasized in multilateral policy discourse. Following the 1995 Beijing Platform for Action, which called for increased participation of women in conflict resolution at decisionmaking levels, (1) the UN Security Council adopted, in October 2000, its first resolution focusing on the role of women in the maintenance of international peace and security (SC/RES/1325/2000). (2) In November 2000, the European Parliament adopted a similar resolution encouraging women's participation in conflict resolution. (3) Security Council Resolution 1325 calls for (1) an increased representation of women in decisionmaking related to peace and security, including UN peace operations; (2) the better protection of women and girls under international humanitarian and human rights law; and (3) special attention to women in the pursuit of postwar justice, disarmament and demobilization, and repatriation and reintegration of refugees. In the follow-up, two major studies are being prepared to enhance the understanding of critical issues facing women in conflict and postconflict situations. The UN Division for the Advancement of Women is leading the secretary-general's study on women, peace, and security, while the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) has commissioned independent experts' assessments of the impact of armed conflict on women and the role of women in peacebuilding. (4) Statement of the Problem The role of women in conflict resolution and peacebuilding is multidimensional. First, women's participation is conceived as an issue of equitable representation, for legitimate conflict resolution requires an inclusive and participatory process, (5) and thus is part of a reform process in which decisionmaking power is transferred to every citizen on the basis of equality. Second, it is frequently argued that women bring gender perspectives to the substance of negotiations. representation at the negotiating table is the sine qua non of gender equality and inclusion, says Graca Machel in the secretary-general's report on children in armed conflict. (6) According to Swanee Hunt of the Women Waging Peace program at Harvard University, Common sense dictates that women should be central to peacemaking, where they can bring their experience in conflict resolution to bear. (7) As such, women are expected to articulate and negotiate favorable terms for women and gender equality based on their experiences as single heads of households, community leaders, humanitarian and social workers, and peace activists. Some claim an even more substantial role for women. Noeleen Heyzer, executive director of UNIFEM, states, commitment to peace also remains critical to ensuring the sustainability of peace agreements signed by political and military factions. (8) It is thus no accident that Resolution 1325 places a strong emphasis on the increased representation of women in peace-related functions. One-third of the eighteen-article resolution is devoted to measures that increase women's participation in peacemaking, peace negotiations, and peacekeeping operations, and as special representatives and envoys of the secretary-general. Yet the premise of women's participation as an introduction to gender equality and sustainable peace agreements has not been tested; it is not backed by empirical evidence. In fact, the short- to medium-term results of many peace processes point to the contrary: women continue to be discriminated against and marginalized in postwar society. In Kosovo, despite the introduction of 30 percent electoral quotas for women, only 8.2 percent of those elected to the Municipal Assemblies in the October 2000 elections were women. (9) In Burundi, despite the historic convention of the All-Party Women's Conference in July 2000 in which two women from each of nineteen political parties participating in peace negotiations, formulated women's recommendations, and managed to incorporate twenty-three of them into the final peace agreement, conference-goers could not agree on which one delegate would represent them at the accord signing. …

Providing Comprehensive Case Management Services to Urban Women with HIV/AIDS and Their Families

Women continue to be disproportionately affected with HIV. Women with HIV/AIDS are also more likely than their male counterparts to be single heads of households and primary providers for their children. Social workers are ideally suited to recognize the psychosocial complexities that HIV/AIDS entails for women and how such circumstances can interfere with medical management and meeting children’s needs. This article discusses the literature relevant to women with HIV/AIDS and case management and describes a community-based case management program that was designed to serve urban women with newly diagnosed or newly disclosed cases of HIV/AIDS and their families.

The Severe Implications of the Economic Downturn on Working Families

The Clinton economic boom witnessed a robust expansion of female employment, especially among single heads of households, and of wage increases, especially for low‐wage workers. However, the employment difficulties of African‐American men persisted, official poverty was reduced but not economic deprivation, and the vulnerability of children of single heads increased. Compared to the previous downturn, the current downturn is more severe when measured by employment losses and has hit women harder as a result of September 11.

Approaches to Understanding the Position of Women Workers in the Informal Sector

Although many studies of the informal economy tend to be gender-blind, being male or female affects one's movements, possibilities, and career trajectories in the informal sector. Partly because of societal, cultural, and familial patriarchal constraints, women often constitute an especially vulnerable, superexploitable labor force (Safa, 1995). Women in the informal sector may be married or single heads of household. As women married to male heads of household, they may take part in informal-sector activities either as part of the family labor force involved in the same informal-sector activity or as workers in their own right pursuing incomes complementary or supplementary to those of their spouses. Women heads of household, abandoned, separated, or widowed, more often depend on their informal-sector work for the majority of household income. (This of course depends on the stage in the domestic cycle and how many working-age children there are in the household.) The number of female-headed households is increasing throughout Latin America, and these women are disproportionately found in the informal sector (Berger, 1988: 16-17; Buvinc, Youssef, and Von Elm, 1978; Folbre, 1991; International Center for Research on Women, 1988; Lycette and White, 1988: 38-39). Women who work independently of their husbands are disadvantaged in setting up microenterprises such as sewing workshops or street vending stalls by their lesser access to capital and to the skills needed for buying and marketing (Rakowski, 1987; Lycette and White, 1988). Because of the limitations on their mobility associated with gender ideologies in Latin America, women have fewer opportunities to establish the contacts required for developing successful businesses (Cartaya, 1987; Lycette and White, 1988; Espinal and Grasmuck, n.d.; Ypeij, n.d.). Women working as unremunerated labor in their husbands' microenterprises may make the difference between success and failure of those enterprises.

Social exclusion, social citizenship and de‐commodification: An evaluation of the adequacy of support for the unemployed in the European Union

This article examines government support for the unemployed and their families in the European Union and attempts to demonstrate why the debate concerning the adequacy of unemployment benefit is based on a partial understanding of the income packages available to the unemployed. Conventional methods of assessing the standard of unemployment insurance have focused on the benefits available to a single head of household rather than the resources available to both the unemployed and their families. We argue that the manner in which unemployment benefit is supplemented by family allowances and housing benefit makes a significant difference to household income. Our results have important implications for our theoretical understanding of welfare state regimes, and, in particular the evaluation of the extent to which income‐maintenance systems free individuals from the need to participate in the labour market in order to be assured of economic security. We argue that the procedure adopted by Esping‐Andersen in The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (1990) to measure this process of de‐commodification does not take account of the experience of the unemployed and their families, and we use our results to construct a revised and expanded index of de‐commodification which provides us with a clearer impression of each country's characteristics.