Single-family Residential Building Research Articles

Embodied Carbon Benchmarks of Single-family Residential Buildings in the United States

Embodied Carbon Benchmarks of Single-family Residential Buildings in the United States

Assessment of the impact of setting the heating curve on reducing gas consumption in a residential building while ensuring thermal comfort

Due to the large share of the residential building sector in CO2 emissions, it is necessary to look for quick-to-implement and cost-free solutions for heating systems aimed at increasing their efficiency and reducing fuel consumption. The aim of the study is a multi-aspect assessment of the proper setting of the heating curve in the weather controller of a low-temperature floor heating system with a condensing gas boiler, and an analysis of the impact of the heating curve slope on the natural gas consumption, the emission of gaseous and dust pollutants and on maintaining appropriate indoor air parameters: air temperature, operative temperature and PMV and PPD. A wide range of simulation tests were carried out using the TRNSYS software for an existing energy-efficient single-family residential building, with mechanical ventilation with heat recovery, located in north-eastern Poland in Bialystok. Changing the heating curve slope by 0.1 can reduce gas consumption and pollutant emissions by 1.6–10.3 %. Low heating curve slopes may result in failure to reach the temperature set by users (difference between the set and achieved indoor temperature up to 1.9 K), while maintaining standard thermal comfort parameters (−0.5<PMV<+0.5; PPD<10 %). Reducing the indoor air temperature by 2 K can contribute to reducing gas consumption by 11 % while maintaining standard thermal comfort parameters. Changing the heating curve slope is one of the effective methods of reducing fuel consumption in the building. Results are useful for users of buildings equipped with low-temperature heating systems with floor heating and installers of these systems.

A Unified Multievent Windstorm Performance Testbed for Single-Family Residential Buildings

A Unified Multievent Windstorm Performance Testbed for Single-Family Residential Buildings

Case study: analysis of pathological manifestations in a single-family residential building in the municipality of Carlos Chagas-MG, Brazil

The word pathology is used in civil construction when investigating structural and functional damage produced by endogenous or exogenous actions, in materials, techniques, systems, and construction components. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the structures and construction materials through studies and analyses of pathological manifestations to improve the quality of constructions, and the habitability and durability of the works. The objective of this work is to carry out a case study on pathologies in a single-family residential building in the municipality of Carlos Chagas, MG, Brazil. A bibliographical survey was carried out in different national and international databases to verify published works that addressed the topic proposed. Additionally, on-site visits were carried out to analyze the condition of the building and to catalog the pathologies. The results showed several pathologies, such as the exposure due to corrosion of reinforcement, concrete segregation, cracking, infiltration, efflorescence, mold, and flaking, which indicated the need for interventions in the building to provide safety, stability, aesthetics, and comfort to residents.

Environmental and Economic Sustainability Indicators for External Walls

The current context of the intensification of climate changes, on one hand, and the sharp increase in prices in the buildings sector, on the other, impose the need to find solutions that considers both economic and environmental protection aspects.This paper proposes a method of evaluating the solutions most often used today in Romania for the exterior walls in single-family residential buildings based on a global index that takes into account both environmental performances (adjusted thermal resistance, carbon footprint) as well as the economic ones (costs).

CFD Simulations of Small Particle Behavior with Blower-Driven Airflows in Single-Family Residential Buildings

Inhaling airborne droplets exhaled from an infected person is the principal mode of COVID-19 transmission. When residential energy efficiency workers conduct blower door tests in occupied residences with a COVID-19-infected occupant potentially present, there is a concern that it could put the workers at risk of infection with massive flows of air being generated by the tests. To minimize this risk, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were conducted for four prototype houses to develop guidelines for workers to follow during their service visits. The CFD simulations visualized the movements and evaluated the residence time of small particles released at certain locations under a series of scenarios representing situations that are likely to be encountered during in-home energy efficiency services. Guidelines were derived from the simulated tracks of droplets to help to increase the safety of the worker(s).

BIM-based environmental assessment of residential renovation projects during the operational phase

ABSTRACT Reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions to combat global climate change has become an international necessity. A large portion of energy consumption is attributed to old buildings, with increased operational costs and decreased occupational comfort. These buildings require renovation measures that can be viewed as an opportunity to implement sustainable construction and create traditionally designed buildings based on sustainable construction. This study proposes a combination of building information modeling (BIM) with Design Builder and Meteonorm software to evaluate the environmental impact of renovating buildings during the operational phase. The process involved is demonstrated in a case study application to a typical two-story single-family residential building in Tehran city, in which the building’s materials, weight, and volume are determined using Revit software, and Design Builder is used to simulate the renovation effect on various building components – showing that, by combining the most effective insulation, glass, heating system, and doors, a 15% reduction in energy consumption and 44% reduction in CO2 emissions could be achieved. The study significantly advances knowledge in sustainable building practices by introducing a practical framework for decision-making in environmentally conscious building renovations, focusing on such crucial elements as insulation materials, window glass types, heating systems, and door materials. It also provides valuable insights into the practical implications of weather data for accurate environmental forecasting, emphasizing the methodology's applicability and adaptability to similar contexts, as evidenced by its successful application in a real-world case in Tehran.

EVALUATION OF THE ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF HEAT SUPPLY SYSTEMS OF A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING WITH HEAT PUMPS BASED ON COMPUTER SIMULATION

This article presents an analysis of the energy efficiency of the heating system of a single-family residential building with the integration of a heat pump (HP) using climate data for Kyiv city. Specialized software complexes for calculation (GeoT*SOL), dynamic energy modeling (DesignBuilder/EnergyPlus), and techno-economic justification of HP systems implementation (RETScreen) were used for this purpose. The analysis was conducted for two types of HPs: air-to-water (air-based) and ground-source (ground-based), considering various temperature regimes of the indoor heating system. Based on the modeling results, it was determined that for an air-to-water HP with a nominal capacity of 7 kW, the average seasonal efficiency rating could be approximately 3.6 for the HP itself and 2.7 for the overall system. For a ground-source HP with a nominal capacity of 6 kW, the average seasonal efficiency rating is 4.7 for the HP itself and 3.75 for the overall system. The total electricity consumption varies within the range of 4800–5700 kWh for air-based HP and 3200–4300 kWh for ground-based HP. Depending on the HP capacity, the share of heating energy coverage ranges from 85-98% for ground-based HP and 79-98% for air-based HP. The simple payback period of the HP-based heating system compared to electric convectors is 15.2–17.0 years.

Performance evaluation of different building envelopes integrated with phase change materials in tropical climates

The need to improve building envelope components and reduce energy consumption is becoming increasingly crucial. The use of phase-change material (PCM) technologies is a viable solution to reduce energy consumption in buildings and associated greenhouse gas emissions. However, the performance of PCMs in buildings is strongly dependent on the melting temperatures and the climate conditions of the building's location. Therefore, the present study presents an optimisation-based approach to assessing the performance of building walls integrated with PCMs at different melting temperatures. To achieve this goal, a multiobjective genetic algorithm is used in conjunction with EnergyPlus building energy models to determine the optimal balance between total building energy consumption, lifecycle cost, and CO2 emissions. The proposed approach is applied to a single-family residential building located in six locations in the Central African sub-region classified as tropical savanna climate (Aw), hot semi-arid climate (Bsh), tropical rainforest climate (Af), and tropical monsoon climate (Am). Two different PCM technologies (InfiniteRPCM and BiocPCM) are applied to four wall types (brick, concrete block, cast concrete, and earth), and their parametric models are developed in EnergyPlus to optimise the melting temperature, thickness, and location of each PCM layer simultaneously. An optimisation is conducted for each selected wall and each location, and the optimised buildings are systematically compared to the reference buildings. The optimisation results showed that regardless of the climate zone and wall type, the application of PCMs with different melting temperatures significantly reduced energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Moreover, the results showed a different set of optimal solutions for each climate zone and wall type. The optimal solutions reduced the total energy, life cycle cost, and CO2 emissions by up to 47.80 %, 29.62 %, and 52.96 %, respectively.

Impacts of lighting and plug load variations on residential building energy consumption targeting zero energy building goals

Mitigating building energy use and carbon emissions in the buildings sector is a globally recognized goal. This is being pursued through the adoption of zero-energy building (ZEB) targets, with formal government regulations and policies actively embraced in domestic marketplaces. However, building assessment methods used for the ZEB certification system in South Korea have garnered substantial critique from building energy engineers and practitioners for their practical applicability. This study investigated energy consumption patterns of single-family residential buildings, focusing on two major energy end-use categories: lighting- and plug-loads. Empirical analyses and field measurement data were used to construct representative profiles of lighting and plug loads, as well as power density values, based on data from existing residential buildings. These distinct profiles of lighting and plug loads were used as input data for a residential ZEB evaluation. The measurement data from 60 detached houses in South Korea was utilized to derive four representative profiles for the category's loads. These profiles were subsequently employed for simulation-based analyses to assess load diversity. A whole-building energy simulation model was developed to conduct annual building energy analyses and assess ZEB certification based on the set and applied load profiles. Results showed that building energy consumption could vary by up to 23% based on different lighting load patterns and by as much as 58% for differing plug load patterns. These findings underline the importance of refining the current domestic ZEB certification process by considering the influence of diverse domestic load profiles on energy consumption and building certification grades.

Bottom-up assessment of household electricity consumption in dynamic cities of the Global South—Evidence from Kigali, Rwanda

Data on electricity consumption is crucial for assessing and modeling energy systems, making it a key element of sustainable urban planning. However, many countries in the Global South struggle with a shortage of statistically valid, geocoded, and disaggregated household-level data. This paper aims to develop a generic methodology for the generation of such a database in terms of electricity consumption. The methodology was tested in Kigali, the capital city of Rwanda, with a focus on all single-family residential building types of the inner city. Discrete data on buildings is obtained through combined information products derived from very high resolution (VHR) satellite imagery, field surveys, and computer assisted personal interviewing. In total, 509 valid geocoded survey datasets were used to evaluate and model household electricity consumption, as well as electrical appliance ownership. The study's findings reveal that the arithmetic mean of specific electricity consumption was 3.66 kWh per household per day and 345 kWh per capita per year in 2015. By subdividing the data into distinct building types as well as their spatial location, and weighting the specific values according to their proportion in the study area, a more accurate mean value of 1.88 kWh per household per day and 160 kWh per capita per year was obtained. Applying this weighted mean to extrapolate household electricity consumption for the study area, in conjunction with the sample's precision level, resulted in an estimate of 126–137 GWh for the year 2015. In contrast, using the arithmetic mean would have led to values twice as high, even exceeding the total electricity consumption of the entire city, including multi-family and non-residential buildings. The study highlights the significance of on-site data collection combined with geospatial mapping techniques in enhancing of understanding of residential energy systems. Using building types as indicators to distinguish between households with contrasting electricity consumption and electrical appliance load levels can address the challenges posed by rapid urban growth in the Global South. This proposed method can assist municipal administrations in establishing a database that can be updated resource-efficiently at regular intervals by acquiring new satellite images.

The Impact of Climate Change and Window Parameters on Energy Demand and CO2 Emissions in a Building with Various Heat Sources

This article presents an original study on the impact of climate change and the area of windows Awi (factor X1), the thermal transmittance coefficient of windows Uwi (factor X2), and the coefficient of total solar transmittance factor of the glazing ggl (factor X3) on the index of annual usable energy demand for heating EUH (function Y) of a single-family residential building in the climatic conditions of Bialystok (Poland), which were loaded with an equal gradual increase in average monthly external temperature by Δθe,n (factor X4). Based on the results of the computational experiment, a deterministic mathematical model of this dependence was developed, and the effects of selected factors on the Y function were analyzed for the considered climatic conditions. Moreover, in cases of selected variants, the influence of the energy source on the amount of final energy used and CO2 emissions was studied. It was found that an increase in the average monthly external temperature reduces the EUH of the tested building by 8.4% per every 1 °C of increase in Δθe,n. The reduction in CO2 emissions as a result of climate change is visible for systems with low efficiency and high emission factors (wood boiler), while in the case of pro-ecological high-efficiency systems (with a ground-source pump heat) it is inappreciable. Due to the need to decarbonize buildings, knowledge about the impact of the properties of windows, which are the weakest element in terms of heat loss through the building envelope, as well as the type of heat source on heat demand and CO2 emissions, is very important for engineers and designers when making the correct decisions.

An assessment of effectiveness of the so-called small amendment to the act Construction Law of February 20, 2015 in the terms of simplification of administrative procedures related to the construction of a single-family residential building

The article attempts to analyze the effectiveness of the so-called "Minor amendment" to the Construction Law of February 20, 2015 in the field of simplification of administrative procedures related to the construction of a single-family residential building. On the basis of the results of surveys conducted among individual investors in the Tuszcz commune (Mazowieckie Voivodeship, Woomin County), the advantages and disadvantages of the simplified administrative procedure proposed by the legislator, i.e. construction measurement notification, were determined. The reasons for which this solution is still not competitive in relation to obtaining an administrative decision, which is a building permit, were also indicated.

SPECYFIKA UKŁADU I KOMPOZYCJI ZABUDOWY MIESZKANIOWEJ JEDNORODZINNEJ W POWIECIE ROPCZYCKO-SĘDZISZOWSKIM

The main aim of the article is to show the significance of the spatial order concerning, in particular, the single-family residential architecture of the Ropczyce and Sędziszów poviat. Single-family architecture of small towns in the Subcarpathian region constitutes the majority of buildings and defines their landscape. Referring to the regional architecture of the selected area and to contemporary foreign practices in the subject of critical regionalism, the author defines the most important features of regional development and solutions that may be a guideline for the design of singlefamily residential buildings. The characteristics emphasize the value of traditional housing architecture, contributing to drawing attention to the preservation of spatial order and building the identity of the region.

Sustainable refurbishment of existing, typical single-family residential buildings in Greece

PurposeResidential buildings in Greece constitute an important portion of the existing building stock. Furthermore, most of these buildings were built prior to the first Thermal Insulation Code of 1981. The article focuses on existing, typical residences built after 1920, which are found mostly in suburban areas and settlements all around Greece. The purpose of the research is to evaluate the effect of simple bioclimatic interventions focused on the improvement of their diurnal, inter-seasonal and annual thermal performance.Design/methodology/approachThe applied strategies include application of thermal insulation in the building shell and openings, passive solar systems for the heating period and shading and natural ventilation for the summer period. The effect of the strategies is analysed with the use of building energy analysis. The simulation method was selected because it provides the possibility of parametric analysis and comparisons for different proposals in different orientations.FindingsThe results show that the increased thermal mass of the construction is the most decisive parameter of the thermal behaviour throughout the year.Research limitations/implicationsThe typical residences under investigation are often found in urban and/or suburban surroundings. These mostly refer to free-standing buildings situated, which, in many cases, do not have the disadvantages and limitations that the geometrical characteristics of densely built urban locations impose on incident solar radiation (e.g. overshadowing during the winter) and air circulation (e.g. reduce natural ventilation during the summer). Nevertheless, even in these cases, the surrounding built environment may also have relevant negative effects, which were not taken under consideration and could be included in further, future research that will include the effect of various orientations, as well as of neighbouring buildings.Practical implicationsExisting residences built prior to the first Thermal Insulation Code (1981) form an important part of the building stock. Consequently their energy upgrade could contribute to significant conventional energy savings for heating and cooling, along with the inter-seasonal improvement of interior thermal comfort conditions.Social implicationsThe proposed interventions can improve thermal comfort conditions and lead to a reduction of energy consumption for heating and cooling, which is an important step against energy poverty and the on-going energy crisis.Originality/valueThe proposed interventions only involve the building envelope and are simple with relatively low cost.

The impact of energy improvement measures in single-family residential buildings on air pollution in the city of Uzice

The majority of existing architecture in Serbia has poor thermal characteristics, and heating systems are mostly based on polluting energy sources. This problem results in the unsatisfactory ecological image of cities, and it is endangering the health of the population. Therefore, improving energy performance is becoming an increasingly common principle of design, within both new and existing buildings. The starting point of this paper is that the use of more than sixteen thousand individual heating systems within single-family households in Uzice is one of the most influential air pollutants in the city. The poor quality of energy sources and improper combustion processes release toxic substances into the atmosphere, but the cause of increased emissions of pollutants can be identified in the poor characteristics of thermal envelopes. This research explores whether there is a solution that reduces the pollution in single-family houses by changing the thermal envelope and heating system. The first part of the study points out the main characteristics of the Uzice agglomeration, air pollution and energy sources, while the second part describes the selected single-family housing location in the city. The final part of the research examines the impact of various energy improvement measures on the air pollution in the city of Uzice.

Mobilized thermal energy storage (M-TES) system design for cooperation with geothermal energy sources

The main focus of this paper is the mobilized thermal energy storage system designed to be applied in the heating system of a single-family residential building. It has been investigated if it is possible to use geothermal heat as a heat source for M-TES based on PCMs. To analyze this possibility, tests were carried out under real conditions. The M-TES with 700 kg of Rubitherm RT70HC PCM filled into the tank equipped with internal heat exchanger was designed and experimentally tested in Szaflary and Zakopane, Poland. Conceptual and research work were carried out in cooperation with innogy Polska S.A., PEC Geotermia Podhalańska S.A. and the startup company Enetech sp. z o. o. The field tests were preceded by the series of laboratory experiments. On their basis and on the basis of literature research, a hypothesis was put forward that: it is possible to supply single-family buildings with the M-TES based on PCM, powered by geothermal sources. This has been confirmed in practice by observing the process of loading the storage in the heat source, its transport and heat collection at the user's location. The process was observed through the acquisition of the temperature data inside the tank. The appropriate distribution of sensors allowed the analysis of temperatures at the entrance, exit and located both centrally and at the walls of the tank. Results show that there can be indicated some important aspects that have a significant influence on the operation and justification of the application of the M-TES. Among them: proper selection of PCM, proper design of the heat exchanger, supply temperature and constancy of the heat source operating conditions, distance between charging and discharging points. An additional goal of this article is to present guidelines for the design of such systems, which were formulated on the basis of measurements and observations. The paper was designed to highlight the weakest points of the tests and areas for improvement.

Optimization of Micro-CAES and TES Systems for Trigeneration

Energy storage makes energy continuously available, programmable, and at power levels different from the original intensity. This study investigates the feasibility of compressed-air energy storage (CAES) systems on a small scale. In addition to the CAES systems, there are two TES (thermal energy storage) systems for the recovery of calories and frigories. The micro-CAES + TES system is designed for a single-family residential building equipped with a photovoltaic system with a nominal power of 3 kW. The system is optimized as a potential alternative to battery storage for a typical domestic photovoltaic system. The multi-objective optimization analysis is carried out with the modeFRONTIER software. Once the best configuration of the micro-CAES + TES system is identified, it is compared with electrochemical storage systems, considering costs, durability, and performance. The efficiency of CAES (8.4%) is almost one-tenth of the efficiency of the most efficient batteries on the market (70–90%). Its discharge times are also extremely short. It is shown that the advantages offered by the application of mechanical accumulation on a small scale are mainly related to the exploitation of the thermal waste of the process and the estimated useful life compared to the batteries currently on the market. The studied system proves to be non-competitive compared to batteries because of its minimal efficiency and high cost.

The Direct-Contact Gravel, Ground, Air Heat Exchanger—Application in Single-Family Residential Passive Buildings

This paper presents proposals for using the direct-contact gravel, ground, air heat exchanger in single-family residential buildings with a passive house standard, according to the Passive House Institute (PHI). The methodology of their application consists of using heat and cold from the ground at an insignificant depth (about 1.5–4.0 m below the ground level for the central European climate) through an aggregate that is buried in the ground. This solution of simple installations is used for preheating and cooling fresh air drawn into the building through a mechanical ventilation system with heat recovery. In more complex applications it can be integrated with the source of heat and cold in passive buildings to create complete heating, cooling, and ventilation systems. In both cases, the air flowing through the exchanger is cooled and dried in summer, heated and humidified in winter, and filtered from pollen and bacteria all year. Direct contact of the deposit with the surrounding native soil facilitates rapid regeneration of the bed temperature. This article presents several proposals for integration with systems ensuring climatic comfort in a passive building, as exemplary applications. The paper presents preliminary estimates of energy (savings of up to 70% of electrical energy consumed), economic (SPBT = 3.65 years), and environmental (69.5% reduction in CO2 emissions) benefits related to implementing this solution in various configurations of technological systems for buildings in Poland. The calculations were carried out for the city of Poznań, taking into account the hourly intervals and using the author’s code written in MS Excel. The analysis of the operation of the direct-contact gravel, ground, air heat exchanger (GGAHE) system is based on a theoretical heat and mass exchange model. The integrated solutions of technical systems presented in this article provide an interesting alternative to traditional heating, cooling, and ventilation systems.

Resource Efficiency in the Construction Sector: Material Intensities of Residential Buildings—A German Case Study

This article describes an approach for comparing material intensity values for residential buildings with different construction types. Based on the working drawings of the different construction types (wood and mineral), material intensities are calculated at the building level. Material intensities describe the materials used in a building in mass (tonnes (t)) in relation to the square meters (m2) of gross floor area (GFA) or the cubic meters (m3) of gross volume (GV). The method for determining material intensities at the building level is demonstrated. The results show that material intensities range from 0.61 t/m2 GFA to 1.95 t/m2 GFA for single-family residential buildings and from 1.36 t/m2 GFA to 1.54 t/m2 GFA for multi-storey residential buildings. The average material intensity for mineral buildings is twice as high as that for wood buildings, which means that there is a beneficial resource efficiency in building with wood instead of mineral materials. Therefore, benchmarks for a resource efficient building can be conducted based on these values. These values demonstrate a possibility to influence resource efficiency in buildings.