Single Berry Research Articles

Brassinosteroid Promotes Grape Berry Quality-Focus on Physicochemical Qualities and Their Coordination with Enzymatic and Molecular Processes: A Review.

Brassinosteroid (BR) is an important endogenous phytohormone that plays a significant role in fruit quality regulation. The regulation of BR biosynthesis and its physiological effects have been well-studied in various fruits. External quality (fruit longitudinal and transverse diameters, firmness, single berry weight, color) and internal quality (sugars, aroma, anthocyanin, stress-related metabolites) are important parameters that are modified during grape berry development and ripening. Grapevines are grown all over the world as a cash crop and utilized for fresh consumption, wine manufacture, and raisin production. In this paper, the biosynthesis and signaling transduction of BR in grapevine were summarized, as well as the recent developments in understanding the role of BR in regulating the external quality (fruit longitudinal and transverse diameters, firmness, single berry weight, and color) and internal quality (sugars, organic acids, aroma substances, anthocyanins, antioxidants) of grapes. Additionally, current advancements in exogenous BR strategies for improving grape berries quality were examined from the perspectives of enzymatic activity and transcriptional regulation. Furthermore, the interaction between BR and other phytohormones regulating the grape berry quality was also discussed, aiming to provide a reliable reference for better understanding the potential value of BR in the grape/wine industry.

Čalbmi čalmmis ja suoldnečalmmit suoidnečalmmis

North Saami čalbmi ‘eye’ (< Proto-Uralic *ćilmä) has cognates in all Uralic languages, and everywhere they refer to the visual organs of humans and animals. However, scholars have barely paid attention to the grammatical functions of čalbmi in compound-like formations such as suoldnečalbmi “dew eye”, suoidnečalbmi “grass eye”, varračalbmi “blood eye”, jiekŋačalbmi “ice eye”, vuoktačalbmi “hair eye” and muorječalbmi “berry eye”. This article examines such expressions as so-called singulatives – grammatical means for individuating a single referent from a group or mass (i.e., ‘a single drop of dew’, ‘a single blade of grass’, ‘a single drop of blood’, ‘a single crystal of ice’, ‘a single human hair’ and ‘a single berry’). The article mainly discusses morphological, syntactic and semantic features of singulatives in North Saami and other present-day Saami languages, but comparable singulatives in Khanty, Mansi and Samoyed languages as well as in Hungarian suggest that singulative expressions such as *weri-ćilmä ‘a single drop of blood’, *jäŋi-ćilmä ‘a single crystal of ice; hailstone’ and *me̮rja-ćilmä ‘a single berry’ can, in principle, be reconstructed all the way back to Proto-Uralic.

Systematic Review on the Potential Effect of Berry Intake in the Cognitive Functions of Healthy People.

The increase in life expectancy poses health challenges, such as increasing the impairment of cognitive functions. Berries show a neuroprotective effect thanks to flavonoids, able to reduce neuroinflammatory and to increase neuronal connections. The aim of this systematic review is to explore the impact of berries supplementation on cognitive function in healthy adults and the elderly. Twelve studies were included for a total of 399 participants, aged 18–81 years (mean age: 41.8 ± 4.7 years). Six studies involved young adults (23.9 ± 3.7 years), and four studies involved the elderly (60.6 ± 6.4 years). Most studies investigated effects of a single berry product, but one used a mixture of 4 berries. Non-significant differences were detected across cognition domains and methodologies, but significant and positive effects were found for all cognitive domains (attention and concentration, executive functioning, memory, motor skills and construction, and processing speed), and in most cases they were present in more than one study and detected using different methodologies. Although some limitations should be taken into account to explain these results, the positive findings across studies and methodologies elicit further studies on this topic, to endorse the consumption of berries in healthy populations to prevent cognitive decline.

Potential tradeoffs between effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inoculation, soil organic matter content and fertilizer application in raspberry production.

Ecological intensification has been proposed as an alternative paradigm for intensive agriculture to boost yield sustainably through utilizing ecosystem services. A prerequisite to achieving this is to understand the relations between multiple ecosystem services and production, while taking growth conditions such as nutrient availability into consideration. Here, we conducted a pot-field experiment to study the interactive effects of soil organic matter (SOM) content and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation on the production of raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) under four levels of fertilizer application. Raspberry flower number, fruit number and yield only significantly increased with fertilizer inputs but were not impacted by SOM content or AMF inoculation. Fruit set and single berry weight were influenced by both SOM content and AMF inoculation, in complex three-way interactions with fertilizer application. Fruit set of AMF inoculated plants increased with fertilizer inputs in low SOM soils, but decreased with fertilizer inputs under high SOM soils, with the highest fruit set occurring at no fertilizer inputs. In low SOM soils, the relation between single berry weight and fertilizer application was more pronounced in inoculated plants than in non-inoculated plants, while in high SOM soils the relative benefits of AMF inoculation on single berry weight decreased with increasing fertilizer inputs. We attribute the lack of effects of AMF inoculation and SOM content on flower number, fruit number and yield mainly to potential tradeoffs between the experimental variables that all influence resource uptake by plant root systems. Our results suggest that potentially beneficial effects of AMF and SOM can be offset by each other, probably driven by the dynamic relations between AMF and the host plants. The findings reveal fundamental implications for managing AMF inoculation and SOM management simultaneously in real-world agricultural systems.

The sugarless grape trait characterised by single berry phenotyping

In grape production, the selection of varieties well-adapted to climate fluctuations, especially warming, is based on achieving a balance between fruit sugars and acidity. In recent decades, temperature has been constantly rising during ripening causing excessive sugar concentrations and insufficient acidity in wine grapes in the warmest regions. There is thus an increasing interest in breeding new cultivars able to ripen at lower sugar concentration while preserving fruit acidity. However, the phenotyping of berry composition challenges both methodological and conceptual issues. Indeed, most authors predetermine either average harvest date, ripening duration, thermal time or even the hexoses concentration threshold itself to compare accessions at a hopefully similar ripe stage. In this study, we phenotyped the fruit development and composition of 6 genotypes, including 3 new disease-tolerant varieties known to produce wines with low alcoholic contents. The study was performed at single berry level from the end of the green growth stage to the end of phloem unloading, when water and solute contents reach a maximum per berry. The results confirm that sugarless genotypes achieve fruit ripening with 20-30 % less hexoses than the classical varieties, Grenache N and Merlot N, without impacting berry growth, total acidity or cation accumulation. The sugarless genotypes displayed a higher malic acid/tartaric acid balance than the other genotypes, but similar sucrose/H+ exchanges at the onset of ripening. Data suggest that the sugarless phenotype results from a specific plasticity in the relationship between growth and the turgor imposed by organic acid accumulation and sugar loading. This opens interesting perspectives for the understanding of the mechanism of grapevine berry growth and for breeding varieties that will cope better with climate warming.

Optimization of the sampling method to monitor Drosophila suzukii infestation in vineyards

AbstractDrosophila suzukii is a highly polyphagous pest species that can also attack grape. To prevent economic damage in vineyards, it is important to detect D. suzukii infestation early in order to protect grapes efficiently. Here, we firstly examined if peripheral zones adjacent to natural habitats and central zones within a vineyard differ in infestation levels, and, secondly, where within a grape cluster most eggs are laid. Among the eight infested vineyards studied, seven had higher D. suzukii infestation levels in peripheral zones adjacent to hedgerows, forests or gardens. Females laid 2.0‐fold more eggs on berries in the interior of grape clusters than on berries on the exterior of the cluster. Based on the finding that berries in the interior of grape clusters are more vulnerable, we developed a novel sampling method to estimate D. suzukii infestation level in vineyards more effectively. The so‐called ‘whole cluster method’ consists of a representative but random collection of five grape clusters per plot and a visual inspection of five berries each from the inner and outer part of a cluster totalling 50 checked berries per plot. We then compared our newly developed method to two established sampling methods to estimate D. suzukii infestations (i.e. ‘single berry method’ and ‘cluster fragment method’), which rarely collect and inspect berries from the interior of clusters. In 87 comparisons conducted in 35 different plots, the ‘whole cluster method’ was the most sensitive sampling method as the calculated mean infestation rate was highest and it identified eggs earlier and in more samples than the other two methods. We therefore believe that the ‘whole cluster method’ is currently the most effective method to assess D. suzukii infestations in commercial vineyards.

Additive and synergistic effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, insect pollination and nutrient availability in a perennial fruit crop

Managing ecosystem services might reduce the dependence of modern agriculture on external inputs and increase the sustainability of agricultural production. Insect pollinators and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) provide vital ecosystem services for crop production, but it has not been tested whether their effects on crop yield interact and how their effects are influenced by nutrient availability. Here we manipulated insect pollination, AMF inoculation and fertilizer application (four levels) in a randomized complete block design with potted raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) to assess the interacting effects of these variables on crop yield. AMF inoculation increased the per-plant flower number by 33% and the fruit number by 35%, independently from insect pollination and fertilizer application. Single berry weight furthermore increased more strongly with fertilizer application rates in AMF inoculated plants than in non-inoculated plants. As a consequence, AMF inoculation boosted raspberry yield by 43% compared to non-inoculated plants. AMF inoculation increased pollinator visitation rate per plant under intermediate fertilizer levels, suggesting additional indirect effects of AMF inoculation on yield. Fruit yield of pollinated plants increased more strongly with fertilizer application rate than the yield of plants from which pollinators had been excluded. At maximum nutrient availability, the combined benefits of both ecosystem services resulted in a 135% higher yield than that of fertilizer-only treatments. Our results suggest that the benefits of ecosystem services on yield can be additive or synergistic to the effects of conventional management practices. Intensive, high-input farming systems that do not consider the potential adverse effects of management on ecosystem service providing species might risk becoming limited by delivery of ecosystem services. Proactively managing ecosystem services, on the other hand, has the potential to increase crop yield at the same level of external inputs.

Varietal Response to Sour Bunch Rot in Polish Grapevine Genetic Resources

The aim of this study was to assess the resistance to sour rot of twenty-eight valuable cultivars of grapevine for wine production and twenty-five cultivars of table grapevine with diverse geographic and genetic origins, and to explain the causes of varied resistance based on the features related to the morphology, biology and ecology of assessed genotypes. The study was conducted for six years in the grapevine field collection of the National Institute of Horticultural Research in Skierniewice (Poland, latitude 51.9627 N, longitude 20.1666 E). Sour rot was severe in three seasons with abundant rainfall during the berry ripening stage. The number of wine and table cultivars in particular classes of resistance (mean value for three years) was as follows: very little or little—9 (wine) and 9 (table), medium—9 (wine) and 3 (table), high or very high—10 (wine) and 13 (table). The severity of bunch sour rot was positively correlated with single berry weight (moderate or weak correlation), bunch density and single bunch weight (very weak or weak correlation), and negatively correlated with thickness of berry skin (strong correlation) and the time of the beginning of veraison (weak correlation). Cultivars that were characterized by such agrobiological and ecological features as easy detachment of the berry from the pedicel, sensitivity to berry skin cracking, frequent damage to the skin by insects, and sensitivity to sunburn, were more heavily exposed to sour rot.

Insect pollination and soil organic matter improve raspberry production independently of the effects of fertilizers

Intensive agriculture faces the challenge of contributing to feeding the increasing global population while minimizing its adverse effects on the environment. Ecological intensification can help achieve this as it proposes to supplement artificial inputs with ecosystem services such as pollination, nutrient cycling and water retention. The mixed results of previous studies with respect to the potential of using ecosystem services for ecological intensification suggests more data is needed from a wider range of contexts to explore the potential of this approach in practice. We conducted an experiment which studied the effects of all combinations of insect pollination (open pollination vs pollinators excluded), soil organic matter (SOM) content (1.66 % vs 3.73 %) and four levels of fertilizer applications, on the quantity and quality of raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) production. We were particularly interested in interacting effects on crop yield between the ecosystem services and fertilizer application. Insect pollination significantly increased single berry weight (11 %) and raspberry yield (33 %). SOM content enhanced visitation rate of pollinators and increased the single berry weight by 20.5 %, but SOM did not contribute significantly to fruit number or yield. SOM contributed to the soluble solids content of the fruits; however, this effect interacted with pollination and fertilizer inputs in a non-linear way. Fertilizer application positively contributed to single berry weight, fruit number and thus overall yield but did not influence in any way the effects of pollination and SOM on raspberry production. Our results provide evidence that ecosystem services contribute to fruit production and can potentially be used to (partly) replace artificial fertilizer inputs while maintaining productivity but our results also suggest that yield maximization requires enhancing both ecosystem services and fertilizer application.

First quantitative assessment of growth, sugar accumulation and malate breakdown in a single ripening berry

Background: Most approaches to grape physiology accept that the berry and the future harvest should display identical developmental features, which obviously requires synchronised fruits.Aims: Rejecting this assumption compels to revisit the kinetic and metabolic bases of berry ripening.Methods and Results: Two to three thousand berries were individually analysed for sugar, malate and weight. The huge heterogeneity in sugar and malic acid concentrations among fruits was mostly explained by time lags in the onset of sugar storage, which proved nearly as long as the second growth phase. Individual berries from different cultivars displayed similar kinetics following the normalisation of their maximal volume. Phloem sucrose unloading started at its maximum speed at softening, but growth resumed one week later. Four hexoses accumulated per malic acid, which was oxidised during the first two weeks of ripening, and then malate breakdown stopped without affecting sugar accumulation. Sugar and water accumulation were simultaneously arrested four weeks after softening, at 0.9 M hexose, at which point sugar concentration continued through water losses.Conclusions: The accepted sequential random sampling methods representative of average fruit and future wine compositions have led to a scrambled vision of grape developmental biology, presenting serious kinetic and composition biases. Single berry composition provides first quantitative evidence for the induction of a dominant H+/sucrose exchange on the tonoplast, which is first electro-neutralised by malate breakdown, then by ATP demanding H+ recirculation, in line with functional and molecular studies.Significance of the Study: The kinetics of single berry ripening are presented for the first time. A more reliable and reproducible model of berry growth, sugar import and malate breakdown is shown here, which have definitively been improved from a quantitative point of view. It illustrates that the temporal structure of a berry population may largely contribute to future wine quality, in addition to metabolic plasticity, thereby providing another target for the impact of GxE interaction. In this respect, addressing the structure of berry cohorts may provide a new approach regarding the developmental biology/terroir nexus.

Single berry reconstitution prior to RNA-sequencing reveals novel insights into transcriptomic remodeling by leafroll virus infections in grapevines

Leafroll viruses are among the most devastating pathogens in viticulture and are responsible for major economic losses in the wine industry. However, the molecular interactions underlying the effects on fruit quality deterioration are not well understood. The few molecular studies conducted on berries from infected vines, associated quality decreases with the repression of key genes in sugar transport and anthocyanin biosynthesis. Sampling protocols in these studies did however not account for berry heterogeneity and potential virus induced phenological shifts, which could have biased the molecular information. In the present study, we adopted an innovative individual berry sampling protocol to produce homogeneous batches for RNA extraction, thereby circumventing berry heterogeneity and compensating for virus induced phenological shifts. This way a characterization of the transcriptomic modulation by viral infections was possible and explain why our results differ significantly from previously reported repression of anthocyanin biosynthesis and sugar metabolism. The present study provides new insights into the berry transcriptome modulation by leafroll infection, highlighting the virus induced upregulation of plant innate immunity as well as an increased responsiveness of the early ripening berry to biotic stressors. The study furthermore emphasizes the importance of sampling protocols in physiological studies on grapevine berry metabolism.

The Effect of Elevated CO2 on Berry Development and Bunch Structure of Vitis vinifera L. cvs. Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon

Carbon dioxide (CO2) as one of the main factors driving climate change is known to increase grapevine growth and yield and could, therefore, have an impact on the fruit quality of vines. This study reports the effects of elevated CO2 (eCO2) on berry development and bunch structure of two grapevine cultivars (Vitis vinifera L. cvs. Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon) within the VineyardFACE (Free-Air Carbon Dioxide enrichment) experiment, using must analysis and non-invasive fluorescence sensor technology. Berry development was examined on five dates over three consecutive years by analyzing total soluble solids (TSS), pH, total acidity, organic acids, nutrition status, and non-invasive Multiplex measurements. Before harvest, secondary bunches were collected to examine bunch and berry parameters. Results showed that eCO2 had little impact on berry composition of Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon during berry development, which could be related to bunch structure or single berry weight within single seasons. Elevated CO2 (eCO2) did not result in modified TSS accumulation during ripening but was directly related to the chlorophyll index SFR_R. Higher single berry weights (SBW), higher malic acid (MA), and lower tartaric acid (TAA) were examined at some stages during development of berries under eCO2 levels. Our study provides evidence that eCO2 did alter some bunch and berry parameters without a negative impact on fruit quality.

Flavonoid-Rich Mixed Berries Maintain and Improve Cognitive Function Over a 6 h Period in Young Healthy Adults.

Research with young adults has previously indicated flavonoid-rich berry interventions facilitate improved executive function (EF) and positive affect 20 min–2 h post-dosing. There has been little consideration of the impact of a berry intervention over a working day and interventions have also tended to consider only a single berry type. This study investigated the temporal profile of EF and mood changes over a 6 h period following a mixed-berry intervention. We hypothesized berry-related benefits would be most evident when participants were cognitively compromised on demanding elements of the task or during periods of fatigue. The study employed a single-blind, randomized, placebo controlled, between-subjects design. Forty participants aged 20–30 years consumed a 400 mL smoothie containing equal blueberry, strawberry, raspberry, and blackberry (n = 20) or matched placebo (n = 20). Mood was assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule; EF was tested using the Modified Attention Network (MANT) and Task Switching (TST) Tasks. Testing commenced at baseline then 2, 4 and 6 h post-dosing. As expected, following placebo intervention, performance decreased across the day as participants became cognitively fatigued. However, following berry intervention, participants maintained accuracy on both cognitive tasks up to and including 6 h, and demonstrated quicker response times on the MANT at 2 and 4 h, and TST at 6 h. This study demonstrates the efficacy of flavonoid rich berries in maintaining or improving cognitive performance across the 6 h day.

Impact of Temperature, Ethanol and Cell Wall Material Composition on Cell Wall-Anthocyanin Interactions.

The effects of temperature and ethanol concentration on the kinetics of anthocyanin adsorption and desorption interactions with five cell wall materials (CWM) of different composition were investigated. Using temperatures of 15 °C and 30 °C and model wine with ethanol concentrations of 0% and 15% (v/v) over 120 min, the adsorption and desorption rates of five anthocyanin-glucosides were recorded in triplicate. Small-scale experiments were conducted using a benchtop incubator to mimic a single berry fermentation. Results indicate that more than 90% of the adsorption occurs within the first 60 min of the addition of anthocyanins to CWM. However, desorption appears to occur much faster, with maximum desorption being reached after 30 min. The extent of both adsorption and desorption was clearly dependent not only on temperature and ethanol concentration but also on the CWM composition.

Potential of Sorbus berry extracts for management of type 2 diabetes: Metabolomics investigation of 1H NMR spectra, α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities, and in vivo anti-hyperglycaemic activity of S. norvegica

Ethnopharmacological relevanceBerries of Sorbus species have been used to treat type 2 diabetes in many regions in Europe. Aims of the studyTo investigate the inhibitory activity of berry extract of Sorbus on the digestive enzymes α-amylase and α-glucosidase, two important targets for management of blood glucose for type 2 diabetics. Furthermore, to test the anti-hyperglycaemic potential of S. norvegica berry extract in vivo. Materials and methods70% acetone berry extracts of 16 Sorbus species were tested in vitro for inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase. Single berry extracts were analysed by 1H-NMR spectroscopy and principal component analysis to evaluate the chemical profiles of the extracts. The anti-hyperglycaemic effect was evaluated in an oral starch tolerance test in STZ-treated C57BL/6 mice. ResultsThe lowest IC50 values against α-amylase and α-glucosidase were obtained with the Sorbus species belonging to the subspecies Aria, which have simple leaves compared to pinnately compound leaves of the other Sorbus species. Species belonging to subspecies Aria grouped together and away from the other Sorbus species in the score plot, indicating a difference in chemistry. Both the carbohydrate- and polyphenol-fraction contributed to the enzyme inhibition. Extract of the most active species, S. norvegica, had anti-hyperglycaemic activity, at a level 36 times lower than clinically used acarbose, corresponding to a needed daily dose of 900 mg extract. ConclusionsSorbus species of subspecies Aria have the potential to be used for management of type 2 diabetes.

Container Production of Southern Highbush Blueberries Using High Tunnels

Blueberry production in Mississippi (MS) is mainly rabbiteye blueberries (Vaccinium virgatum Ait.), which ripen in late May to June. Growing early-ripening southern highbush blueberries (SHBs) (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) presents an opportunity for early fruit production and increased market price for locally produced blueberries, yet faces the challenge of spring frost damage. One-year-old liners of 10 SHB cultivars were transplanted into 15-gallon plastic containers and placed in a high tunnel in Apr. 2015. Blueberry plants were fertilized with either a conventional or an organic fertilizer at comparable rates. Plants were evaluated for berry yield, timing of first berry harvest and peak harvest, single berry weight, and soluble solid content during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons. The high tunnel increased monthly maximum temperature by 3.2 to 10.4 °C, monthly average temperature by 0.7 to 4.2 °C, and minimum monthly temperature for up to 3.0 °C compared with outdoor environment. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) at noon in the high tunnel ranged from 477 to 1411 µmol·m−2·s−1 and relative humidity ranged from 54.6% to 81.7% from Jan. 2016 to June 2017. SHBs in the high tunnel produced first berry harvest during the first week of April in both growing seasons. Total berry yield per plant ranged from 921 g to 2136 g in 2016 and from 1222 g to 2480 g in 2017. Compared with the organic fertilizer, conventional fertilizer increased berry yield in April and May, and total berry yield in 2016, but resulted in similar yield in 2017. Eight cultivars (Emerald, Farthing, Gupton, Meadowlark, Pearl, Rebel, Star, and Sweetcrisp) produced single berries that averaged more than 2 g per berry in 2016, compared with two cultivars (Gupton and Pearl) in 2017. Smaller berry size may have resulted from the generally increasing yield from 2016 to 2017. ‘Sweetcrisp’ produced berries with higher soluble solid content, 14.2% and 14.1% in 2016 and 2017, than the other nine cultivars. Container production of SHB cultivars in a high tunnel produced total berry yield equivalent to 6458 kg/ha in 2016 to 7500 kg/ha in 2017, advanced blueberry production by 4 to 5 weeks, and therefore may serve as a potential production system for early fruiting blueberries in Mississippi.

Biogenic Volatiles Emitted from Four Cold-Hardy Grape Cultivars During Ripening

In this research dataset, we summarize for the first time volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted in vivo from ripening wine grapes. We studied four cold-hardy cultivars grown in the Midwestern U.S.: St. Croix, Frontenac, Marquette, and La Crescent. These cultivars have gained popularity among local growers and winemakers, but still very little is known about their performance compared with long-established V. vinifera grapes. Volatiles were collected using two novel approaches: biogenic emissions from grape clusters on a vine and single grape berries. A third approach was headspace collection of volatiles from crushed grapes. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was used to collect volatiles. Vacuum-assisted SPME was used in the case of single grape berry. Collected VOCs were analyzed using separation and identification on a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer (GC-MS). More than 120 VOCs were identified using mass spectral libraries. The dataset provides evidence that detecting biogenic emissions from growing grapes is feasible. The dataset provides a record of temporal and spatial variability of VOCs, many of which could potentially impart aroma and flavor in the wine. The number of VOCs detected followed the order from single berry (the least) to crushed berry (the most). Thus, more information for potential use in harvesting in order to obtain the desired flavor is found in data from crushed grapes.

SMALL BERRY FRUIT FARMS AND DIVERSIFICATION POTENTIAL ON REDUCTION OF PRODUCTION RISK

A significant number of small farms in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) produce berry fruits. Some of them achieve good economic results, however many have significant potential for further improvement. Due to several beneficial factors, many farms decide for cultivation of a single berry fruit activity, however this decision implies a potential risk in case of unfavourable production or market conditions for that crop. The aim of this analysis is therefore to observe the extent of risk reduction by application of different diversification strategies, using two types of berry fruits; and the most efficient production plans for such a farm from a risk perspective. A linear program was utilized to prepare an optimal production plan, while quadratic risk programming served to analyse risk. Results show that diversification could be a significantly important possibility for risk reduction on such farm type. It is possible to reduce risk with capital and labour less intensive production activities. Production of the highly intensive strawberry variety Clery has highest Estimated Gross Margin (EGM), but is also associated with very high risk. If one includes raspberries or blueberries into the production plan, it is possible to significantly reduce risk while almost keeping EGM at the same level. On the other hand, if the farmer is risk averse, the highest opportunity cost for risk reduction on such a farm type is in production of raspberry and blueberry, where it is necessary to give up 3.25 EUR on average for decreasing risk for one EUR. In the other two scenarios, production of strawberry – blueberry and strawberry – raspberry, risk gradient values are almost the same with amount 2.57 EUR sand 2.56 EUR, respectively. 

Berry skin resistance explains oviposition preferences of Drosophila suzukii at the level of grape cultivars and single berries

Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) is an invasive species, which is able to attack intact ripening fruit and has become a serious pest in the Americas and Europe. However, susceptibility toward D. suzukii varies strongly within and between grapevine cultivars. The aim of our study was to differentiate between berry parameters influencing oviposition of D. suzukii in grapevine with two complementary approaches. We investigated the influence of berry skin resistance, total soluble solids (a sugar related parameter), acidity and volatile acidity on grape susceptibility; in the first approach at the cultivar level in a field survey, and in the second approach at the single berry level in a laboratory choice experiment. Both approaches revealed that berry skin resistance explained oviposition decidedly better than chemical composition of the berries did: Soft skinned cultivars and berries received significantly more eggs than hard skinned cultivars and berries. These findings suggest a major role of berry skin resistance in the susceptibility of grapevine toward D. suzukii. The cultivar approach identified the cultivars Dornfelder, Trollinger (= Vernatsch, Schiava), Portugieser, Roter Elbling and Cabernet Dorsa to be susceptible, whereas Dakapo, Lemberger (= Blauer Limberger) and Riesling showed no oviposition by D. suzukii. Nevertheless, parameters like previous damage, climate, environment and plant protection may have an additional impact.

High-Precision Phenotyping of Grape Bunch Architecture Using Fast 3D Sensor and Automation.

Wine growers prefer cultivars with looser bunch architecture because of the decreased risk for bunch rot. As a consequence, grapevine breeders have to select seedlings and new cultivars with regard to appropriate bunch traits. Bunch architecture is a mosaic of different single traits which makes phenotyping labor-intensive and time-consuming. In the present study, a fast and high-precision phenotyping pipeline was developed. The optical sensor Artec Spider 3D scanner (Artec 3D, L-1466, Luxembourg) was used to generate dense 3D point clouds of grapevine bunches under lab conditions and an automated analysis software called 3D-Bunch-Tool was developed to extract different single 3D bunch traits, i.e., the number of berries, berry diameter, single berry volume, total volume of berries, convex hull volume of grapes, bunch width and bunch length. The method was validated on whole bunches of different grapevine cultivars and phenotypic variable breeding material. Reliable phenotypic data were obtained which show high significant correlations (up to r2 = 0.95 for berry number) compared to ground truth data. Moreover, it was shown that the Artec Spider can be used directly in the field where achieved data show comparable precision with regard to the lab application. This non-invasive and non-contact field application facilitates the first high-precision phenotyping pipeline based on 3D bunch traits in large plant sets.