Singapore Strait Research Articles

Envisioning a decision support system for the planning of alternative fuel bunkering operations in Singapore

Abstract In the coming decades, the global maritime industry will face a most formidable technological and societal challenge set by climate change – achieving net zero carbon emissions by 2050. To meet this target, ships are shifting towards the use of low-carbon alternative fuels such as ammonia and methanol. While this paradigm shift to the bunkering of greener fuels is encouraging, it also introduces a new and unique type of environmental risk in the unfortunate scenario of a spill. In the past decades numerous environmental studies have been conducted and mitigation techniques for petroleum oil spills have been developed. However, ammonia and methanol spills are comparatively less understood globally and in the region. There is a significant knowledge gap regarding how the complex atmosphere, hydrodynamic and environmental conditions of the Singapore Straits may influence the dispersion and assimilation of hypothetical ammonia or methanol plumes. Together with other emerging alternative fuels such as electricity and hydrogen, ammonia and methanol have different physical and chemical properties in ambient water compared to conventional LNG or petroleum oil which makes modelling the risk they pose to the environment more challenging. In view of these challenges, the key objective of our research is to develop an operationally running decision support system (DSS) that combines physics-based atmospheric and coastal hydrodynamic models that can forecast the marine and atmospheric plume dispersion of alternative fuels. This forecasting capability will be supplemented with data-driven and rule-based optimisation algorithms that can be used to determine the optimal mitigation scenarios which minimises the potential environmental impacts. Overall, the DSS will integrate observation data, models, mitigation scenarios, and decision-making tools pertaining to efficient and safe bunkering operations within Singapore’s ports. This is essential as the use of alternative fuels in maritime industry becomes more common in Singapore and around the world. Such a system will aid relevant authorities to better calculate risk and plan mitigation measures at designated bunkering locations and periods having optimal atmospheric, hydraulics, and environmental conditions. In this paper, we describe the potential consequences of alternative fuel spills, mitigation measures and a plan for assessing their environmental impact within the context of Singapore. We will review the limited current efforts to model ammonia spills in the literature and propose for a more integrated modelling approach through the DSS.

Progress in Research on Microplastic Prevalence in Tropical Coastal Environments: A Case Study of the Johor and Singapore Straits

Microplastics are contaminants in marine ecosystems, posing great threats to biota and human health. In this work, we provide an overview of the progress made in understanding microplastic prevalence in tropical coastal environments, focusing on the Johor and the Singapore Straits as a case study. We examine the sources, distribution, transport, and ecological impact of microplastic pollution in this region through a systematic review. All papers relating to marine microplastics in Singapore’s sand and benthic sediments, seawater, and marine biota were used for analysis, from 2004 to 2023. In addition, we discuss the influence of envi-ronmental factors such as coastal morphology and anthropogenic activities on patterns of microplastic accumulation. We emphasize that microplastic pollution is more prevalent along the eutrophic Johor Strait compared to the Singapore Strait due to hydrological conditions. Rainfall is also a key factor that influences mi-croplastic abundance during the monsoon seasons. Furthermore, the bacterial and plankton assemblages of organisms on microplastic surfaces are diverse, with eutrophic waters enhancing the diversity of organisms on microplastic surfaces. Novel harmful cyanobacteria and bloom species of phytoplankton were also found on microplastic surfaces. By synthesizing existing research findings and highlighting regional characteristics, this paper contributes to ongoing efforts to mitigate microplastic pollution in tropical regions.

A synopsis of the Tanaidacea (Crustacea: Peracarida) of Singapore, with a review of tanaidacean diversity in Southeast Asia and the South China Sea

In the first comprehensive taxonomic study of the tanaidacean fauna of Singapore, a total of 23 species belonging to two suborders, three superfamilies, 13 families and 22 genera were identified from approximately 2,400 specimens, including 11 species that are possibly new to science. This material was collected from various localities in Singapore waters, from the intertidal zone to subtidal habitats up to 91 m in depth. Many species exhibited a narrow bathymetric distribution and strong affiliation to certain habitats or microhabitats such as mudflats, coral reefs, and barnacle shells on rocky shores. The Singapore Strait yielded 20 tanaidacean species, almost thrice the number of species (7) present in the Johor Straits. Three species were confined to the brackish waters in the inner parts of the Johor Straits and Sungei Pandan. Furthermore, a total of 153 tanaidacean species has now been recorded from Southeast Asia and the South China Sea. The presence of the family Numbakullidae in this region is also documented for the first time.

Sphaerothrix gracilis gen. et sp. nov. (Nodosilineales, Cyanobacteria): a novel filamentous cyanobacterium isolated from tropical coastal microplastics

SUMMARYCyanobacteria are ancient organisms that contribute significantly to primary production in aquatic ecosystems. Although they are a group of microbes present in a wide range of environments, their diversity on anthropogenic substrates, namely microplastics, is still largely unknown. In the present study, we describe a new genus and species of cyanobacteria from the Nodosilineaceae family. Strains were isolated from foam microplastic particles obtained from beach sediments facing the Singapore Strait. This species is morphologically similar to the polyphyletic, cosmopolitan Leptolyngbya spp.; however, it forms an independent clade with 16S rRNA phylogeny and has a unique 16S–23S internal transcribed spacer secondary structure. To date, no cyanobacteria have been isolated and cultured from the surfaces of microplastic particles. Using a polyphasic approach combining morphological, phylogenetic and ecological traits, we describe a new genus and species Sphaerothrix gracilis. The presence of certain cyanobacteria rafting on microplastic surfaces can potentially indicate a long‐distance transport into new ecosystems with implications on toxicity and biodiversity.

Preventing Catastrophic Cyber–Physical Attacks on the Global Maritime Transportation System: A Case Study of Hybrid Maritime Security in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

This paper examines hybrid threats to maritime transportation systems and their governance responses; focusing on the congested Straits of Malacca and Singapore (SOMS) as an illustrative case study. The methodology combines secondary sources with primary data from 42 expert interviews, a 28 respondent survey, and two maritime security roundtables. Key findings were that ships’ critical systems are increasingly interconnected, yet aging IT infrastructure and minimal cybersecurity awareness among crews heighten risks. Meanwhile, regional terrorist groups have previously targeted shipping and shown considerable skill in exploiting online tools, aligning with broader calls for jihadist violence. Furthermore, opportunistic piracy persists in the SOMS with the potential to disrupt shipping. Experts confirmed that maritime cybersecurity lags behind other critical infrastructure sectors and needs updated governance. Initial International Maritime Organization (IMO) guidelines lack specificity but revisions and updated IMO guidance are in process, while Port state implementation of maritime cybersecurity standards varies. Crucially, information sharing remains inadequate, even as recorded attacks increase. Findings underscore that although major hybrid incidents have not occurred, simulations and threat actors’ capabilities demonstrate potential for catastrophic collisions or cascading disruption in congested waterways. Mitigating factors like redundancy and crew training are deficient currently. Some alignment between SOMS states on maritime security cooperation exists, but not on cyber threats specifically. Key recommendations include an anonymous cyber attack reporting system, reinforced training and shipboard systems, and consolidated regional frameworks. Until these priorities are addressed, the analysis concludes that hybrid vulnerabilities in this vital global chokepoint remain a serious concern.

Ship emission projections based on time series forecasting model for sustainable shipping in the strait of Malacca and Singapore

As maritime activities continue to play a pivotal role in global trade, concerns over ship emissions’ environmental impact have intensified. This study presents detailed projection of ship emissions in Strait of Malacca and Singapore (SOMS), based on Automatic Identification System (AIS) data. By harnessing the rich AIS dataset, emission profiles were developed out of the ship activities data. To envision a sustainable maritime future, we incorporate some possible scenarios around the region combined with a time series forecasting model to project the future conditions of ship emission in SOMS. By analysing the conditions in each scenario, essentials for shaping intelligent systems for efficient maritime traffic can be discovered. Our analysis considers evolving factors such as various ship properties, operational modes, and trajectories. The results provide insights for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and environmental planners seeking to mitigate the local maritime sector’s carbon footprint. This study signified the value of AIS data-driven approach to facilitate regional strategist in confronting resolutions for greener maritime operation, aligning with the transition to intelligent and sustainable practices in the maritime industry within the SOMS.

Plankton assemblages from microplastics of tropical coastal environments reveal high diversity and evidence of toxic species

Microplastics are a major constituent of plastic waste and are of an increasing global concern. Although microplastics are prevalent in marine ecosystems, the characterisation of plankton communities has been largely neglected in this aspect, especially in tropical ecosystems. To better understand the role of microplastics as a carrier of harmful plankton in marine ecosystems, epiplastic plankton communities in tropical marine ecosystems were studied from beach sediments along the Johor and Singapore Straits. Complementary analysis of microscopy and high throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA (V3–V4) and 18S (V4) rRNA regions provided evidence that the plastisphere provided an appropriate environment to host a wide range of planktonic organisms. An average of 781 OTUs were identified across the three sampling sites. The structures of plankton communities were distinct across the sampling sites and were generally dominated by dinoflagellates, fungi and chlorophytes. We demonstrate that marine microplastics serve as microhabitats that are a host to harmful phytoplankton species, including viable resting cysts of dinoflagellates. Furthermore, plastics isolated from the location with the greatest anthropogenic influence demonstrated the greatest plankton diversity. This study presents evidence of diverse toxic plankton species present on the plastisphere and highlights its importance as a vector of the transport of harmful opportunistic species in relation to anthropogenic influence, in the marine environment.

APLIKASI PENGENALAN OBJEK WISATA KEPULAUAN RIAU MENGGUNAKAN METODE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The Riau Archipelago is a place that has many tourist objects, one of which is in Batam City. Batam City is one of the largest cities in the Riau Archipelago Province, strategically located very close to international waterways, direct widening with the Singapore Strait and the Malaysia Strait. Tourism object is everything that exists in a tourist destination area which is an attraction so that people want to come to visit that place, all places or natural conditions that have tourist resources that are built and developed so that they have an attraction and are cultivated as a place to visit. traveler. However, currently there is no application that helps the public to introduce tourist objects and forms of marketing or marketing tourism objects in Batam City for foreign tourists is very difficult. So with this Android-based application for recognizing tourist objects in the Riau Islands to make it easier or to get to know tourist objects in the Riau Islands, and to make it easier to find locations for tourist objects in the Riau Islands. Its creation in mobile form aims to make it easy to carry anywhere. with this an application will be created using Adobe Animate. This research method uses the SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle) method with the aim of introducing natural tourism objects in the Riau Archipelago and the design uses UML (Unified Modeling Language).

Preliminary study on Strait of Malacca Tide Wave Characteristic from AIS Data Mining

In this study, advanced data mining techniques and Automatic Identification System (AIS) data were used to examine the tidal and wave dynamics of the Strait of Malacca. This strait has been an important commercial route for centuries, connecting the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean. It is located between Sumatra Island's east coast and Peninsular Malaysia's west coast, with the Strait of Singapore at its southeast end. The study's initial findings indicate a strong correlation between the distance of ships' coordinates and the timing of the tide, which is mainly influenced by the harmonic motion of the sun and the moon. Through AIS data mining and analysis, this study demonstrates the potential for predicting sea heights during tidal events. These results could be further explored in future research. Overall, this study offers valuable insights into the intricate tidal and wave dynamics of the world's longest strait and highlights the promise of AIS data mining for advancing our knowledge of oceanic phenomena. The research outcomes could potentially facilitate the development of more precise and effective methods for forecasting sea heights and predicting other marine processes.

The Straits of Malacca and Singapore

The Straits of Malacca and Singapore

The strategy for the resolution of marine pollution on the northern coast of Bintan Island Indonesia due to sludge oil with the principle of cooperation to realize the sustainable development goals

One marine pollution source is oil discharge from vessel activity, then spread by the current and the wind. Such as the pollution of the North Coast of Bintan Island adjacent to the Singapore Strait caused by sludge oil which has occurred for years. This pollution has an impact on the sustainability of marine resources and tourism in the area. The countermeasure by the local government is to collect sludge oil using nets. This paper is the result of research on the solution strategy. The research methodology uses Doctrinal legal research with statutory, conceptual, and case approaches. Based on research results the solution strategy for sustainability to marine is to apply the principle of cooperation for user states and littoral states of the Singapore Strait by the treaty because the case is not easy to prove causality through scientific verification, the solution that can be done is by applying the principle of cooperation with bilateral or multilateral cooperation agreements between the littoral state and the user state in the Singapore Strait. That way most effective in resolution and avoiding conflict.

The Legality of Passage of the Nuclear-Powered Submarines: Are Malaysia and Indonesia in Catch-22?

INTRODUCTION. Southeast Asia is home to some of the most important sea lines of communications (SLOCs) which are not only significant maritime con­uits for merchant vessels, but military vessels of the superpower nations as well. While there have never been any casualties involving nuclear-powered submarines in this region, the fact remains that the num­ber of such vessels traversing Southeast Asian SLOCs is predicted to rise in years to come.MATERIALS AND METHODS. This research is a result of analysis of international treaties applied to navigation of nuclear-powered submarines. Some of the materials used for preparing this paper include 1) the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982; 2) AUKUS pact. The methodological basis of the re­search consists of traditional methods: general scien­tific methods (in this case, based on general principles of law) and specific methods.RESEARCH RESULTS. Other than China, Aus­tralia is another State within this region projected to own nuclear-powered submarines by 2040 through AUKUS. These developments have raised concerns among leaders of Southeast Asian nations, particu­larly Malaysia and Indonesia, the caretaker States of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore as well as the Indonesian archipelagic sea lanes. These maritime waterways are traversed by thousands of vessels each year, including nuclear-powered submarines belong­ing to nations already possessing them.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. This article concludes by reiterating that international law should provide an equitable balance between navigational rights and protection of the marine environment particularly in sea lines of communications which are subjected to liberal navigational rights, in relation to nuclear-powered submarines.

The designation of special area in the Singapore Strait to solve the pollution due to the oil sludge discharge that affects to the coast of Bintan, Indonesia In order to achieve marine and coastal sustainability

The coast of Bintan, Indonesia, has experienced pollution due to violations of oil disposal regulations. This paper aims to find out whether the Singapore Strait area can have a special area as an alternative to establishing an area outside the port boundary area to overcome pollution caused by the dumping of oil waste off the coast of Bintan. This research was conducted using a non-doctrinal research method with an empirical approach. with the research methods used it was found that it is important to immediately reduce and prevent pollution by establishing special mandatory methods for the disposal of waste oil from ships. Therefore, the application of mandatory and special methods for special areas as regulated by International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) if applied to the Singapore Strait can prevent marine pollution in the strait and have an impact on the Bintan Coast of Indonesia as a Littoral state.

Spatiotemporal characterisation of microplastics in the coastal regions of Singapore

In the 21st century, plastic production continues to increase at an unprecedented rate, leading to the global issue of plastic pollution. In marine environments, a significant fraction of plastic litter are microplastics, which have a wide range of effects in marine ecosystems. Here, we examine the spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics along the Johor and Singapore Straits, at surface and at depth. Generally, more microplastics were recorded from the surface waters across both Straits. Fragments were the dominant microplastic type (70%), followed by film (25%) and fiber (5%). A total of seven colours of microplastics were identified, with clear microplastics as the most abundant (64.9%), followed by black (25.1%) and blue (5.5%). Microplastics under 500 μm in size accounted for 98.9%, followed by particles 500–1000 μm (1%) and 1–5 mm (0.1%). During the monsoon season, the abundance of microplastics across various sites were observed to be > 1.1 times when compared to the inter-monsoon period. Rainfall was a closely related to the increased microplastic abundance across various sites in the Singapore Strait. This suggests that weather variations during climate change can play critical roles in modulating microplastic availability. Beach sediments facing the Singapore Strait recorded an abundance of 13.1 particles/kg, with polypropylene fragments, polyethylene pellets and thermoplastic polyester foam identified via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Hence, it is crucial to profile the spatiotemporal variation of microplastic abundance in both the surface and in the water column to gain a better understanding of the threat caused by microplastic pollution in the coastal regions of Singapore.

The Outside of Port Limit (OPL) as a new maritime zone to overcome marine pollution due to oil sludge impacting the coast of Bintan, Indonesia to actualise sustainable development

The Coastal pollution in Bintan, Indonesia, caused by illegal oil sludge discharge from vessels breaches the provisions of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) regarding the sludge oil discharge 30 ppm from tank cleaning and 15 ppm from machinery spaces, which is has been problem since the 1970s until today, The culprit has not been found until now because the problem of proof scientific verification between the pollutant and the impact of the pollution. Based on research using a research paradigm, qualitative methodology, and empirical legal research, The results of this study indicate the eastern segment 2 of the Singapore Strait, which is a grey area, is a source of oil sludge pollution. Therefore, it is recommended to make a strategy to overcome this pollution with establish and regulate a new maritime zone, namely, outside of port Limit (OPL) in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), thus littoral state can establish OPL in their territorial sea to monitor and prevent illegal sludgde oil discharges into the sea and especially the problem of oil sludge pollution in Bintan can be overcome. Therefore, sustainable development goals can be realized.

Navigational Rights in Archipelagic Waters

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982, through the institutions of the right of innocent passage, the right of transit passage, and the right of archipelagic sea lanes passage, defines the rules for the navigation of foreign-flagged vessels, including warships, in territorial waters (internal waters, territorial sea, and archipelagic waters). The paper analyses the concept of archipelagic waters, the right of innocent passage within Archipelagic Waters, and the right of archipelagic sea lanes passage, respectively. How vital for the global economy and security are archipelagic waters with navigational rights and overflight on them exemplify waters of Indonesia, where nowadays shipping accounts for approximately 50% of total world trade (including Malacca and Singapore Strait, from the Indian Ocean to the Far East), and is rapidly growing.

Spatial and Statistical Analysis of Operational Conditions Contributing to Marine Accidents in the Singapore Strait

Narrow waterways are important connection hubs, also known as logistics transfer nodes, within maritime transport, where maritime traffic can become very dense and congested. Heavy traffic, unsuitable environmental conditions and human errors make narrow waterways risky areas for marine accident occurrence. Accidents in narrow waterways cause ship damage, loss of cargo, loss of life and environmental disasters, as well as interruption of maritime transport and negative impact on the economy. Thus, the sustainability of navigational safety in narrow waterways has been the focus of attention of all beneficiaries in the maritime industry. The Singapore Strait is one of the busiest narrow waterways in the world in terms of the number of ships transiting. Sustaining and safe maritime transport in the Singapore Strait is significantly important for the sustainability of the global trade. Therefore, it is vitally important to appropriately identify the threats to safety of navigation in the Singapore Strait. In this study, the operational conditions that have played a role in the occurrence of accidents in the Singapore Strait are examined. For this purpose, using the Geographical Information System (GIS), the areas where marine accidents are concentrated were determined by the Kernel Density Analysis method and a “Marine Accidents Density Map” was created for the Singapore Strait. The relationship between the dense areas in the marine accidents density map and the operational conditions that play a role in the accidents in the Singapore Strait were examined using the Chi-Square Test and expert opinions. The results of the study indicate that if there is a condition (e.g., turning, joining to the traffic stream, or failure in propulsion/steering systems) that directly or indirectly disturbs the normal flow of traffic in the Singapore Strait, the risk of having an accident increases. The results of this study can be used to determine the measures to be taken for the prevention of possible accidents, as well as to help manage the risks associated with the ships that pass through the region.

Intertidal seawall communities in Singapore: Are they all one and the same?

Ecological rehabilitation of seawalls requires a good understanding of the underlying community structure, which is still poorly known in the tropics where coastal urbanization is rapidly taking place. In this study, we compared intertidal sessile biota on sloping (20°) and vertical (90°) seawalls on a small, reclaimed offshore island in the Singapore Strait and examined the pattern of heterogeneity of sessile assemblages within each seawall type. Cover of sessile organisms, abundance of hard coral species as well as their growth forms across two tidal height ranges in the low littoral region (−0.2 to +0.3 m Chart Datum (CD) and + 0.3 to +0.8 m CD) were assessed. Seawalls had high biotic cover (mean cover of 91 ± 15%), comprising a variety of sessile organisms ranging from algae and non-colonial organisms including oysters and barnacles to colonial organisms such as cnidarians and sponges. Turf algae comprising coralline and non-coralline rhodophytes dominated the intertidal zone below +0.8 m CD. A moderate negative correlation was detected between crustose coralline and non-coralline algae (Spearman coefficient = −0.56). Coralline algae were relatively conspicuous on several vertical seawall sites. Seawall type was a significant factor differentiating sessile cover composition (p < 0.05) even though within-type site variability was significant (p < 0.005). Coral species diversity and growth form abundance were also significantly differentiated by seawall type (respectively p < 0.05). Tidal height (+0.3 m CD) was another significant factor for sessile cover composition and growth form abundance (p < 0.05). In general, sloping seawalls showed higher within-site variability and less obvious tidal stratification of sessile cover composition compared to vertical seawalls. In contrast, vertical seawalls showed lower within-site variability but higher site-to-site variation, as well as significant tidal stratification of coral growth form. These differences in community structure on apparently uniform seawall surfaces suggest the need for nuanced approaches to rehabilitate and enhance biodiversity in the intertidal zone.

Dugongs (Dugong dugon) along hyper-urbanized coastlines

Coastal development and the increased anthropogenic use of sea spaces have rapidly degraded coastal habitats throughout Southeast Asia. We study how these activities impact dugong (Dugong dugon) population(s) along hyper-urbanized coastlines of the Johor and Singapore Straits through literature reviews and field surveys. Our review recovered sixty-nine live observations and carcass observations of dugongs between 1820 and 2021. The eastern Johor Strait is identified as a dugong hotspot. We observed peaks in observations coincident with the Northeast and Southwest monsoons. Distribution patterns of dugong observations were likely driven by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors such as seasonality in seagrass abundance, tidal cycles, wind patterns and vessel traffic. Our field surveys ascertained active foraging sites along the anthropogenically disturbed Johor Strait and western Singapore Strait. Evident from our study is the importance of reef-associated seagrass meadows as refugia for foraging dugongs along areas of high anthropogenic use. This study provides an ecological baseline for dugong research along the Johor and Singapore Straits—within the data-poor western Malay Archipelago—, and aids in the design of sustainable management strategies and conservation programs for dugongs along areas where urbanization is commonplace.

Inherent Optical Properties based Vulnerability Assessment of Euphotic Zone Compression in peatland influenced Southeast Asian coastal waters

Underwater light availability is a crucial aspect for the ecological functioning of shallow water bodies. Light extinction from terrestrial inputs is a growing threat to these coastal habitats. The blended quasi-analytical algorithm (QAA) was extended for the derivation of colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) absorption coefficient along with other inherent optical properties (IOPs) from satellite observations for Southeast Asian waters. The contribution of these IOPs to diffuse attenuation of light (Kd) and penetration depth (Zd) was investigated. A vulnerability assessment was performed to identify locations potentially threatened by poor light quality in Southeast Asian waters. Advection of peatland-influenced Sumatran coastal waters rich in organic matter (ag(400nm): 1.0-2.0m-1) and sediments (bbp(400nm): 0.5-1m-1) drive the spatial heterogeneity of Sunda shelf seawater. Photic zone depth, Zd(490nm), is year-round restricted to ≤5m for critically vulnerable Sumatran coastal waters (vulnerability index, VI&amp;gt;0.8). This critically vulnerable state is further extended towards the southern Malacca Strait, influencing the eastern Singapore Strait from June to September. The areas harbouring marine ecosystems in the shelf waters attain a higher threshold (VI=0.6-0.8), constraining the photosynthesis to depths ≤10m. A transformation of central Malacca Strait from not vulnerable (VI&amp;lt;0.2) to highly vulnerable (VI=0.6-0.8) state from June to September indicates poor light conditions. Further increases in CDOM and sediment inputs into these water columns, therefore, constitute a clear risk of reducing light availability, which may have damaging effects on the functioning of coastal habitats. This study underscores the need for a complete ecological risk assessment for Southeast Asia to aid in the effective management of marine ecosystems.