Simulations Of Collapse Research Articles

Ionization: a possible explanation for the difference of mean disk sizes in star-forming regions

Context. Surveys of protoplanetary disks in star-forming regions of similar age revealed significant variations in average disk mass in some regions. For instance, disks in the Orion Nebular Cluster (ONC) and Corona Australis (CrA) are on average smaller than disks observed in Lupus, Taurus, Chamaeleon I, or Ophiuchus. Aims. In contrast to previous models that studied the truncation of disks at a late stage of their evolution, we investigate whether disks may already be born with systematically smaller disk sizes in more massive star-forming regions as a consequence of higher ionization rates. Methods. Assuming various cosmic-ray ionization rates, we computed the resistivities for ambipolar diffusion and Ohmic dissipation with a chemical network, and performed 2D nonideal magnetohydrodynamical protostellar collapse simulations. Results. A higher ionization rate leads to stronger magnetic braking, and hence to the formation of smaller disks. Accounting for recent findings that protostars act as forges of cosmic rays and considering only mild attenuation during the collapse phase, we show that a high average cosmic-ray ionization rate in star-forming regions such as the ONC or CrA can explain the detection of smaller disks in these regions. Conclusions. Our results show that on average, a higher ionization rate leads to the formation of smaller disks. Smaller disks in regions of similar age can therefore be the consequence of different levels of ionization, and may not exclusively be caused by disk truncation through external photoevaporation. We strongly encourage observations that allow measuring the cosmic-ray ionization degrees in different star-forming regions to test our hypothesis.

Neutrino emission characteristics of black hole formation in three-dimensional simulations of stellar collapse

Neutrinos are unique probes of core-collapse supernova dynamics, especially in the case of black hole (BH) forming stellar collapses, where the electromagnetic emission may be faint or absent. By investigating two 3D hydrodynamical simulations of BH-forming stellar collapses of mass 40 and 75 M_sun, we identify the physical processes preceding BH formation through neutrinos, and forecast the neutrino signal expected in the existing IceCube and Super-Kamiokande detectors, as well as in the future generation DUNE facility. Prior to the abrupt termination of the neutrino signal corresponding to BH formation, both models develop episodes of strong and long-lasting activity by the spiral standing accretion shock instability (SASI). We find that the spiral SASI peak in the Fourier power spectrum of the neutrino event rate will be distinguishable at 3 sigma above the detector noise for distances up to O(30) kpc in the most optimistic scenario, with IceCube having the highest sensitivity. Interestingly, given the long duration of the spiral SASI episodes, the spectrograms of the expected neutrino event rate carry clear signs of the evolution of the blue spiral SASI frequency as a function of time, as the shock radius and post-shock fluid velocity evolve. Due to the high accretion luminosity and its large-amplitude SASI-induced modulations, any contribution from asymmetric (dipolar or quadrupolar) neutrino emission associated with the lepton emission self-sustained asymmetry (LESA) is far subdominant in the neutrino signal.

Erratum for “Krylov Subspace Accelerated Newton Algorithm: Application to Dynamic Progressive Collapse Simulation of Frames” by Michael H. Scott and Gregory L. Fenves

Erratum for “Krylov Subspace Accelerated Newton Algorithm: Application to Dynamic Progressive Collapse Simulation of Frames” by Michael H. Scott and Gregory L. Fenves

Birth of convective low-mass to high-mass second Larson cores

Context. Stars form as an end product of the gravitational collapse of cold, dense gas in magnetized molecular clouds. This fundamentally multi-scale scenario occurs via the formation of two quasi-hydrostatic Larson cores and involves complex physical processes, which require a robust, self-consistent numerical treatment. Aims. The primary aim of this study is to understand the formation and evolution of the second hydrostatic Larson core and the dependence of its properties on the initial cloud core mass. Methods. We used the PLUTO code to perform high-resolution, one- and two-dimensional radiation hydrodynamic (RHD) core collapse simulations. We include self-gravity and use a grey flux-limited diffusion approximation for the radiative transfer. Additionally, we use for the gas equation of state density- and temperature-dependent thermodynamic quantities (heat capacity, mean molecular weight, etc.) to account for effects such as dissociation of molecular hydrogen, ionisation of atomic hydrogen and helium, and molecular vibrations and rotations. Properties of the second core are investigated using one-dimensional studies spanning a wide range of initial cloud core masses from 0.5 M⊙ to 100 M⊙. Furthermore, we expand to two-dimensional (2D) collapse simulations for a selected few cases of 1 M⊙, 5 M⊙, 10 M⊙, and 20 M⊙. We follow the evolution of the second core for ≥100 years after its formation, for each of these non-rotating cases. Results. Our results indicate a dependence of several second core properties on the initial cloud core mass. Molecular cloud cores with a higher initial mass collapse faster to form bigger and more massive second cores. The high-mass second cores can accrete at a much faster rate of ≈10−2 M⊙ yr−1 compared to the low-mass second cores, which have accretion rates as low as 10−5 M⊙ yr−1. For the first time, owing to a resolution that has not been achieved before, our 2D non-rotating collapse studies indicate that convection is generated in the outer layers of the second core, which is formed due to the gravitational collapse of a 1 M⊙ cloud core. Additionally, we find large-scale oscillations of the second accretion shock front triggered by the standing accretion shock instability, which has not been seen before in early evolutionary stages of stars. We predict that the physics within the second core would not be significantly influenced by the effects of magnetic fields or an initial cloud rotation. Conclusions. In our 2D RHD simulations, we find convection being driven from the accretion shock towards the interior of the second Larson core. This supports an interesting possibility that dynamo-driven magnetic fields may be generated during the very early phases of low-mass star formation.

Theoretical and numerical simulation study on jet formation and penetration of different liner structures driven by electromagnetic pressure

The use of a shaped liner driven by electromagnetic force is a new means of forming jets. To study the mechanism of jet formation driven by electromagnetic force, we considered the current skin effect and the characteristics of electromagnetic loading and established a coupling model of “Electric–Magnetic–Force” and the theoretical model of jet formation under electromagnetic force. The jet formation and penetration of conical and trumpet liners have been calculated. Then, a numerical simulation of liner collapse under electromagnetic force, jet generation, and the stretching motion were performed using an ANSYS multiphysics processor. The calculated jet velocity, jet shape, and depth of penetration were consistent with the experimental results, with a relative error of less than 10%. In addition, we calculated the jet formation of different curvature trumpet liners driven by the same loading condition and obtained the influence rule of the curvature of the liner on jet formation. Results show that the theoretical model and the ANSYS multiphysics numerical method can effectively calculate the jet formation of liners driven by electromagnetic force, and in a certain range, the greater the curvature of the liner is, the greater the jet velocity is.

Performance of a novel ductile connection in steel-framed structures under fire conditions

The component-based model of a novel connection, which is designed to accommodate the high ductility demand of long-span steel beams in fire conditions, has been incorporated into the finite element software Vulcan. A single beam with the novel connections connecting it to rigid supports at both ends is first used to verify that the component-based model has been correctly incorporated into Vulcan, by comparing its results with those from detailed finite element models using the general-purpose package Abaqus. The performance of the novel connection has been compared with that of conventional connection types, including ideally rigid and pinned connections, end-plate and web-cleat connections, using a sub-frame model. Results show that, compared with other connection types, the novel connection provides much higher axial and rotational ductilities, to accommodate the deformations generated by the connected beam as its temperature rises. To optimize the performance of the novel connection under the tensile axial forces generated by the eventual catenary action of heated, unprotected beams at high temperatures, parametric studies have been carried out on the influence of four key parameters, including the temperature of the connection, the inner radius of its semi-cylindrical section, the plate thickness and the bolt spacing. It is found that it is possible to optimize connection thickness, protection level, and inner radius of the semi-cylindrical section in order to delay the occurrence of bolt pull-out failure, and thus enhance a beam's ultimate failure temperature. Finally, the combined static-dynamic solver of Vulcan is used to simulate the progressive collapse of a three-storey, three-bay frame with these novel connections. This progressive collapse simulation emphasizes the importance of connections for the survival of the entire structure in a fire event.

Stereoselective gridization and polygridization with centrosymmetric molecular packing

The gridarenes, with well-defined edges and vertices, represent versatile nanoscale building blocks for the installation of frameworks and architectures but suffer from difficulty in stereoselective control during their synthesis. Here we report a diastereoselective gridization of superelectrophilic diazafluorene-containing substrates (AmBn) with crescent shapes into Drawing Hands grids (DHGs). The meso-selectivity reaches 75.6% diastereomeric excess (de) during the gridization of A1B1-type substrates and maintains ~80% de during the polygridization of A2B2-type monomers. Such stereocontrol originates from the centrosymmetric molecular packing of two charge-delocalized superelectrophiles with synergistically π–π stacking attractions and coulombic repulsions. As meso-stereoregular structures show 20∼30 nm in length, the rigid ring/chain-alternating polygrids have a Mark–Houwink exponent of 1.651 and a molecular weight (M) dependence of the hydrodynamic radius Rh ∼ M1.13. Via the simulation of chain collapse, meso-configured polygridarenes still adopt rod-like conformations that facilitate the high rigidity of organic nanopolymers, distinguished from toroid backbones of rac-type polygrids.

The Birth of Binary Direct-collapse Black Holes

Abstract Supermassive primordial stars forming during catastrophic baryon collapse in atomically cooling halos at z ∼ 15–20 may be the origin of the first quasars in the universe. However, no simulation to date has followed the evolution of these halos at resolutions that are high enough or for times that are long enough to determine if collapse actually produces supermassive stars (SMSs). Here we report new cosmological simulations of baryon collapse in atomically cooled halos for times that are long enough for SMSs to form and die as direct-collapse black holes (DCBHs). We find that the high infall rates required to build up such stars persist until the end of their lives and could fuel the rapid growth of their BHs thereafter. Our simulations also demonstrate that binary and even small multiples of SMSs can form in low-spin and high-spin halos, respectively. This discovery raises the exciting possibility of detecting gravitational waves from DCBH mergers with LISA and tidal disruption events in the near-infrared with the James Webb Space Telescope and ground-based telescopes in the coming decade.

Protostellar disk formation by a nonrotating, nonaxisymmetric collapsing cloud: model and comparison with observations

Context. Planet-forming disks are fundamental objects that are thought to be inherited from large scale rotation through the conservation of angular momentum during the collapse of a prestellar dense core. Aims. We investigate the possibility for a protostellar disk to be formed from a motionless dense core that contains nonaxisymmetric density fluctuations. The rotation is thus generated locally by the asymmetry of the collapse. Methods. We study the evolution of the angular momentum in a nonaxisymmetric collapse of a dense core from an analytical point of view. To test the theory, we performed three-dimensional simulations of a collapsing prestellar dense core using adaptative mesh refinement. We started from a nonaxisymmetrical situation, considering a dense core with random density perturbations that follow a turbulence spectrum. We analyzed the emerging disk by comparing the angular momentum it contains with the one expected from our analytic development. We studied the velocity gradients at different scales in the simulation as is done with observations. Results. We show that the angular momentum in the frame of a stellar object, which is not located at the center of mass of the core, is not conserved due to inertial forces. Our simulations of such nonaxisymmetrical collapse quickly produce accretion disks at the small scales in the core. The analysis of the kinematics at different scales in the simulated core reveals projected velocity gradients of amplitudes similar to the ones observed in protostellar cores and for which directions vary, sometimes even reversing when small and large scales are compared. These complex kinematics patterns appear in recent observations and could be a discriminating feature with models where rotation is inherited from large scales. Our results from simulations without initial rotation are more consistent with these recent observations than when solid-body rotation is initially imprinted. Lastly, we show that the disks that formed in this scenario of nonaxisymmetrical gravitational collapse grow to reach sizes larger than those that are observed, and then fragment. We show that including a magnetic field in these simulations reduces the size of the outcoming disks and it prevents them from fragmenting, as is shown by previous studies. Conclusions. We show that in a nonaxisymmetrical collapse, the formation of a disk can be induced by small perturbations of the initial density field in the core, even in the absence of global large-scale rotation of the core. In this scenario, large disks are generic features that are natural consequences of the hydrodynamical fluid interactions and self-gravity. Since recent observations have shown that most disks are significantly smaller and have a size of a few tens of astronomical units, our study suggests that magnetic braking is the most likely explanation. The kinematics of our model are consistent with typically observed values of velocity gradients and specific angular momentum in protostellar cores. These results open a new avenue in which our understanding of the early phases of disk formation can be explored since they suggest that a fraction of the protostellar disks could be the product of nonaxisymmetrical collapse, rather than directly resulting from the conservation of preexisting large scale angular momentum in rotating cores.

Model-Based Assessment of Long-Term Serviceability and Fire Resistance for Underground Reinforced Concrete Ducts

The collapse simulation of underground reinforced concrete (RC) ducts surrounded by soil foundations in a fire is conducted using multi-scale finite element analysis. The underground RC ducts are found to be deteriorated by both long-term soil subsidence and creep and shrinkage of concrete. The long-term shear crack risk is clarified by site inspection of some underground RC ducts. To conduct the structural risk assessment, the multi-scale simulation is applied and its performance upgraded to 1000°C. The release of chemically bound water from hardened cement paste is developed in the scheme of micropore structural modelling. It is linked with the mesoscale thermodynamics of vapour and the mechanics of the solid skeleton, and its fracture is integrated with the macroscopic cracked concrete constitutive models. This framework is upgraded to include the spalling of concrete cover in the event of a fire, and the exposure of reinforcing bars to high temperatures during a fire is reproduced. As the moisture dynamics inside the micropores of concrete can be used to determine the creep and shrinkage of concrete, long-term RC deformation can also be consistently taken into account for its normal use.

Numerical analysis of the dynamic effects of wine-cup shape power transmission tower-line system under ice-shedding

This study aims at the dynamic response analysis and collapse simulation of wine-cup shape power transmission tower-line system under ice-shedding. A finite element model for wine-cup shape power transmission tower-line system is developed. The modeling techniques are discussed in detail. The static response under ice-accretion and dynamic response under ice-shedding of the system are both analyzed. A progressive collapse analysis of the tower-line system is also conducted. The numerical results show that the ice accretion on power transmission line mainly affects the cross arm of the tower, rather than the power transmission lines or the tower body. Middle shedding and uniform shedding are the most detrimental ice-shedding modes while end shedding has little influence on a single line. For tower-line system, asymmetric ice-shedding and the ice-shedding on two lines at the same span have more influence on the system than the ice-shedding on one line at a single span and at two continuous spans. The comparison between the numerical results and calculated results shows that the dynamic response of the power transmission line would be intensified under the influence of the tower and multi-span ice-shedding. The calculated results by using the proposed simplified formula considering the dynamic effect of tower-line system show good agreement with the simulation results. The middle V-part is the most crucial part in the standard wine-cup shape power transmission tower. This study suggests that special attention should be paid on the structural members connecting the middle V-part and other parts of the tower, whose fracture would easily trigger the collapse of the whole tower.

Three-Dimensional Collapse Simulation on the Spatial Structure Of Concrete Assembly Building Based on BIM

In order to overcome the problems of inaccurate load data and large simulation error in the existing collapse simulation methods of prefabricated building spatial structure, this paper proposes a BIM based 3D collapse simulation method of concrete prefabricated building spatial structure. The framework of simulation numerical model is constructed, the internal force relationship is determined, the load displacement data of current space collapse is obtained from multiple angles, the simulation parameters of current data results are selected to simulate materials, the current constitutive relationship is determined under the BIM model relationship, and the data extraction and stress conversion are completed based on the BIM model to realise the collapse simulation of building structures. The experimental results show that compared with the traditional method, the load data of this method is more accurate, and the collapse simulation process is more in line with the real situation.

Collapse Simulation and Response Assessment of a Large Cooling Tower Subjected to Strong Earthquake Ground Motions

Large cooling towers in thermal power plants and nuclear power plants are likely to suffer from strong earthquakes during service periods. The resulting destructions of the cooling towers would endanger the power plants and threaten the security of the related areas. It is important to use effective means to evaluate the safety status of the cooling towers and guide further precautions as well as retrofitting efforts. This paper is therefore focused on an elaborate numerical investigation to the earthquake-induced collapses of a large cooling tower structure. A complete numerical work for simulation of material failure, component fracture, structural buckling and system collapse is presented by integrating the stochastic damage constitutive model of concrete, refined structural element models, and some other key techniques. Numerical results indicate that the damage behavior and collapse mode of the cooling tower are affected notably by the randomness specification of ground motions. The collapse mechanisms of the cooling tower are studied from the energy absorption and dissipation points of view. An effective energy-based criterion is introduced to identify the collapse of the cooling tower under ground motion excitations. While distinct collapse modes are observed, the collapse criterion can predict well the damage and failure of the cooling tower. The proposed methodology is vital to better understanding the disastrous mechanisms and potential failure paths in optimal design of the cooling towers to ensure safety.

Finite element simulation of a motorway bridge collapse using the concrete damage plasticity model

The aim of this work is to show how the concrete damage plasticity model developed by Lubliner et al. can be applied for calculation of a motorway bridge collapse occurred in the Amur region, Russia. The concrete structural behaviour is highly complex. Being a quasi-brittle material, concrete demonstrates softening behaviour that is numerically complex due to the loss of positive definiteness of the tangent rigidity matrix of the material, and hence the loss of the ellipticity of the equilibrium rate equation. This eventually leads to the loss of well-posedness of the rate boundary value problem. Besides that, concrete behaviour in compression differs from that in tension. There are a few different failure modes of concrete material: tension cracking, compression crushing, spalling of concrete, etc.

Strain Rate Effect on the Progressive Collapse Analysis of RC Frame Structure under Earthquake

The strain rate effect can influence the seismic responses of reinforced concrete (RC) structures because the constitutive relationship of concrete and rebar is rate‐dependent. This paper carries out progressive collapse analysis to research the influence of strain rate effects on collapse‐resistant capacity, collapse mode, and collapse path of the RC frame structure. A progressive collapse simulation program for the reinforced concrete (RC) structure with a static and dynamic constitutive relationship is coded individually using the user subroutine VUMAT and then implemented in the advanced finite element program ABAQUS. The good agreement between experimental and simulation results proves that the coded subroutine is reliable. With the coded subroutine, by conducting progressive collapse analyses of a four‐story RC frame structure under earthquake, the effect of strain rate on the response is investigated. The numerical results demonstrate that the collapse‐resistant capacity of the structure is underestimated when the strain rate effect is neglected. It is shown that strain rate effects influence the collapse mode and collapse path of the structure. Therefore, strain rate effects should be considered in the progressive collapse analysis of the RC frame structure.

Numerical simulation of seismic collapse mechanisms of vertically irregular steel high-rise buildings

The effect of mass and stiffness vertical irregularities on the collapse mechanism and resistance of steel high-rise structures is investigated using 3-D numerical simulations. Simulations are carried out utilizing a verified modelling approach in which the collapse processes of a regular and four irregular structures are studied under 11 earthquake records. It is indicated that the utilized finite element model, related considerations and calibrations present a reliable and efficient technique for collapse simulation. The findings show that vertical irregularities adversely affect the collapse resistance and mechanism of steel high-rise buildings. Especially, mass vertical irregularity with concentration in the lower half of the structure is the most vulnerable one; while the stiffness irregularity with distribution in the top and bottom parts of the structure is the least affecting one. Studying the simultaneous effect of frequency content and vertical irregularities shows that, generally, records with wide frequency content mostly reduce the collapse resistance of the structure and have no significant effect on the collapse mechanism of irregular structures in comparison with regular structure; while records with medium frequency content are most effective on the collapse mechanism.

Influence of Density Dependence of Symmetry Energy in Hot and Dense Matter for Supernova Simulations

Abstract We study the influence of density-dependent symmetry energy at high densities in simulations of core-collapse supernovae, black hole formation, and proto–neutron star cooling by extending the relativistic mean field (RMF) theory used for the Shen equation-of-state (EOS) table. We adopt the extended RMF theory to examine the density dependence of the symmetry energy with a small value of the slope parameter L, while the original properties of the symmetric nuclear matter are unchanged. In order to assess matter effects at high densities, we perform numerical simulations of gravitational collapse of massive stars adopting the EOS table at high densities beyond 1014 g cm−3 with the small L value, which is in accord with the experimental and observational constraints, and compare them with the results obtained by using the Shen EOS. Numerical results for 11.2 and 15 M ⊙ stars exhibit minor effects around the core bounce and in the following evolution for 200 ms. Numerical results for 40 and 50 M ⊙ stars reveal a shorter duration toward the black hole formation with a smaller maximum mass for the small-L case. Numerical simulations of proto–neutron star cooling over 10 s through neutrino emissions demonstrate increasing effects of the symmetry energy at high densities. Neutrino cooling drastically proceeds in a relatively long timescale with high luminosities and average energies with the small symmetry energy. Evolution toward the cold neutron star is affected because of the different behavior of neutron-rich matter, while supernova dynamics around core bounce remains similar in less neutron-rich environments.

Modeling mesoscale energy localization in shocked HMX, Part II: training machine-learned surrogate models for void shape and void–void interaction effects

Surrogate models for hotspot ignition and growth rates were presented in Part I, where the hotspots were formed by the collapse of single cylindrical voids. Such isolated cylindrical voids are idealizations of the void morphology in real meso-structures. This paper therefore investigates the effect of non-cylindrical void shapes and void-void interactions on hotspot ignition and growth. Surrogate models capturing these effects are constructed using a Bayesian Kriging approach. The training data for machine learning the surrogates are derived from reactive void collapse simulations spanning the parameter space of void aspect ratio (AR), void orientation ($\theta$), and void fraction ($\phi$). The resulting surrogate models portray strong dependence of the ignition and growth rates on void aspect ratio and orientation, particularly when they are oriented at acute angles with respect to the imposed shock. The surrogate models for void interaction effects show significant changes in hotspot ignition and growth rates as the void fraction increases. The paper elucidates the physics of hotspot evolution in void fields due to the creation and interaction of multiple hotspots. The results from this work will be useful not only for constructing meso-informed macro-scale models of HMX, but also for understanding the physics of void-void interactions and sensitivity due to void shape and orientation.

Development of collapse‐consistent loading protocols for experimental testing of steel columns

SummaryIn order to effectively utilize results from quasi‐static cyclic testing on structural components for the earthquake‐induced collapse risk quantification of structures, the need exists to establish collapse‐consistent loading protocols representing the asymmetric lateral drift demands of structures under low‐probability of occurrence earthquakes. This paper summarizes the development of such protocols for experimental testing of steel columns prone to inelastic local buckling. The protocols are fully defined with a deformation‐ and a force‐controlled parameter. They are generally applicable to quantify the capacity and demands of steel columns experiencing constant and variable axial load coupled with lateral drift demands. Through rigorous nonlinear earthquake collapse simulations, it is found that the building height, the column's local slenderness ratio, and ground motion type have the largest influence on the dual‐parameter loading protocol indexes. Comprehensive comparisons with measured data from full‐scale shake table collapse tests suggest that unlike routinely used symmetric cyclic loading histories, the proposed loading protocol provides sufficient information for modeling strength and stiffness deterioration in steel columns at large inelastic deformations.

Comparison of multiphase models for computing shock-induced bubble collapse

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to quantify the relative importance of the multiphase model for the simulation of a gas bubble impacted by a normal shock wave in water. Both the free-field case and the collapse near a wall are investigated. Simulations are performed on both two- and three-dimensional configurations. The main phenomena involved in the bubble collapse are illustrated. A focus on the maximum pressure reached during the collapse is proposed.Design/methodology/approachSimulations are performed using an inviscid compressible homogeneous solver based on different systems of equations. It consists in solving different mixture or phasic conservation laws and a transport-equation for the gas volume fraction. Three-dimensional configurations are considered for which an efficient massively parallel strategy was developed. The code is based on a finite volume discretization for which numerical fluxes are computed with a Harten, Lax, Van Leer, Contact (HLLC) scheme.FindingsThe comparison of three multiphase models is proposed. It is shown that a simple four-equation model is well-suited to simulate such strong shock-bubble interaction. The three-dimensional collapse near a wall is investigated. It is shown that the intensity of pressure peaks on the wall is drastically increased (more than 200 per cent) in comparison with the cylindrical case.Research limitations/implicationsThe study of bubble collapse is a key point to understand the physical mechanism involved in cavitation erosion. The bubble collapse close to the wall has been addressed as the fundamental mechanism producing damage. Its general behavior is characterized by the formation of a water jet that penetrates through the bubble and the generation of a blast wave during the induced collapse. Both the jet and the blast wave are possible damaging mechanisms. However, the high-speed dynamics, the small spatio-temporal scales and the complicated physics involved in these processes make any theoretical and experimental approach a challenge.Practical implicationsCavitation erosion is a major problem for hydraulic and marine applications. It is a limiting point for the conception and design of such components.Originality/valueSuch a comparison of multiphase models in the case of a strong shock-induced bubble collapse is clearly original. Usually models are tested separately leading to a large dispersion of results. Moreover, simulations of a three-dimensional bubble collapse are scarce in the literature using such fine grids.