Simple Membrane Research Articles

Simple and Low-Cost Electroactive Membranes for Ammonia Recovery.

Ammonia is considered a contaminant to be removed from wastewater. However, ammonia is a valuable commodity chemical used as the primary feedstock for fertilizer manufacturing. Here we describe a simple and low-cost ammonia gas stripping membrane capable of recovering ammonia from wastewater. The material is composed of an electrically conducting porous carbon cloth coupled to a porous hydrophobic polypropylene support, that together form an electrically conductive membrane (ECM). When a cathodic potential is applied to the ECM surface, hydroxide ions are produced at the water-ECM interface, which transforms ammonium ions into higher-volatility ammonia that is stripped across the hydrophobic membrane material using an acid-stripping solution. The simple structure, low cost, and easy fabrication process make the ECM an attractive material for ammonia recovery from dilute aqueous streams, such as wastewater. When paired with an anode and immersed into a reactor containing synthetic wastewater (with an acid-stripping solution providing the driving force for ammonia transport), the ECM achieved an ammonia flux of 141.3 ± 14.0 g.cm-2.day-1 at a current density of 6.25 mA.cm-2 (69.2 ± 5.3 kg(NH3-N)/kWh). It was found that the ammonia flux was sensitive to the current density and acid circulation rate.

Biomimetic Nanocomposites Camouflaged with Hybrid Cell Membranes for Accurate Therapy of Early‐Stage Glioma

AbstractGlioma features high fatality rate and short survival time of patients due to its fast growth speed and high invasiveness, hence timely treatment of early‐stage glioma is extremely important. However, the blood brain barrier (BBB) severely prevents therapeutic agents from entering the brain; meanwhile, the non‐targeted distribution of agents always causes side effects to vulnerable cerebral tissues. Therefore, delivery systems that possess both BBB penetrability and precise glioma targeting ability are keenly desired. We herein proposed a hybrid cell membrane (HM) camouflage strategy to construct therapeutic nanocomposites, in which HM consisting of brain metastatic breast cancer cell membrane and glioma cell membrane was prepared with a simple membrane fusion pathway. By coating HM onto drug‐loaded nanoparticles, the as‐obtained biomimetic therapeutic agent (termed HMGINPs) inherited satisfying BBB penetrability and homologous glioma targeting ability simultaneously from the two source cells. HMGINPs exhibited good biocompatibility and superior therapeutic efficacy towards early‐stage glioma.

Biomimetic Nanocomposites Camouflaged with Hybrid Cell Membranes for Accurate Therapy of Early-Stage Glioma.

Glioma features high fatality rate and short survival time of patients due to its fast growth speed and high invasiveness, hence timely treatment of early-stage glioma is extremely important. However, the blood brain barrier (BBB) severely prevents therapeutic agents from entering the brain; meanwhile, the non-targeted distribution of agents always causes side effects to vulnerable cerebral tissues. Therefore, delivery systems that possess both BBB penetrability and precise glioma targeting ability are keenly desired. We herein proposed a hybrid cell membrane (HM) camouflage strategy to construct therapeutic nanocomposites, in which HM consisting of brain metastatic breast cancer cell membrane and glioma cell membrane was prepared with a simple membrane fusion pathway. By coating HM onto drug-loaded nanoparticles, the as-obtained biomimetic therapeutic agent (termed HMGINPs) inherited satisfying BBB penetrability and homologous glioma targeting ability simultaneously from the two source cells. HMGINPs exhibited good biocompatibility and superior therapeutic efficacy towards early-stage glioma.

Protocell self-assembly driven by sodium trimetaphosphate.

The co-evolution of peptide formation and membrane self-assembly is considered an essential step in the origin of life. In this study, we systematically investigated the sodium trimetaphosphate (P3m)-activated peptide formation reaction of Phe in an alkaline decanoic acid-decanol vesicle system. The experimental results showed that the peptide formation could competitively occur with N-acyl amino acid (NAA) formation. NAA formation did not follow the traditional P3m-activated peptide formation reaction involving the intermediate cyclic acylphosphoramidate (CAPA), but a phosphoric acid- decanoic acid mixed anhydride intermediate. NAA can form vesicles independently and reduce the critical vesicle concentration of the fatty-acid vesicles. 11 other representative amino acids, namely Ala, Asp, Glu, Gly, Ile, Leu, Pro, Ser, Thr, Val, and Arg, were selected for investigation. All of them reacted with decanoic acid to form NAA via the activation effect of P3m. Our experimental results indicate that the P3m activation effect can provide diversified raw membrane materials to form and stabilize protocell membranes; moreover, the small peptides, such as Phe-Leu, formed in the same reaction system can induce the amplification of primitive cells. This implies that synergistic symbiosis between membrane and peptide can be realized via the P3m activation effect.

Blood pH Analysis in Combination with Molecular Medical Tools in Relation to COVID-19 Symptoms.

The global outbreak of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 provided the stage to accumulate an enormous biomedical data set and an opportunity as well as a challenge to test new concepts and strategies to combat the pandemic. New research and molecular medical protocols may be deployed in different scientific fields, e.g., glycobiology, nanopharmacology, or nanomedicine. We correlated clinical biomedical data derived from patients in intensive care units with structural biology and biophysical data from NMR and/or CAMM (computer-aided molecular modeling). Consequently, new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches against SARS-CoV-2 were evaluated. Specifically, we tested the suitability of incretin mimetics with one or two pH-sensitive amino acid residues as potential drugs to prevent or cure long-COVID symptoms. Blood pH values in correlation with temperature alterations in patient bodies were of clinical importance. The effects of biophysical parameters such as temperature and pH value variation in relation to physical-chemical membrane properties (e.g., glycosylation state, affinity of certain amino acid sequences to sialic acids as well as other carbohydrate residues and lipid structures) provided helpful hints in identifying a potential Achilles heel against long COVID. In silico CAMM methods and in vitro NMR experiments (including 31P NMR measurements) were applied to analyze the structural behavior of incretin mimetics and SARS-CoV fusion peptides interacting with dodecylphosphocholine (DPC) micelles. These supramolecular complexes were analyzed under physiological conditions by 1H and 31P NMR techniques. We were able to observe characteristic interaction states of incretin mimetics, SARS-CoV fusion peptides and DPC membranes. Novel interaction profiles (indicated, e.g., by 31P NMR signal splitting) were detected. Furthermore, we evaluated GM1 gangliosides and sialic acid-coated silica nanoparticles in complex with DPC micelles in order to create a simple virus host cell membrane model. This is a first step in exploring the structure-function relationship between the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and incretin mimetics with conserved pH-sensitive histidine residues in their carbohydrate recognition domains as found in galectins. The applied methods were effective in identifying peptide sequences as well as certain carbohydrate moieties with the potential to protect the blood-brain barrier (BBB). These clinically relevant observations on low blood pH values in fatal COVID-19 cases open routes for new therapeutic approaches, especially against long-COVID symptoms.

Superwetting membrane by co-deposition technique using a novel N‑oxide zwitterionic polymer assisted by bioinspired dopamine for efficient oil–water separation

Superwetting membranes have good prospective for treatment of oil-containing wastewaters. However, development of simple and environment-friendly membranes with efficient oil–water separation performance remains a great challenge that needs to be addressed urgently. In this study, inspired by the secretion of trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) by saltwater fish, we report a novel N‑oxide zwitterionic polymer (PTMAO) with ultralow fouling property possessing directly linked opposite charges in their molecules and superior hydrophilicity, as compared to conventional zwitterionic ones. Using biomimetic co-deposition technique of dopamine (DA) and PTMAO, a zwitterionic polymer network was formed via self-polymerization of DA and followed by hydrogen bonding and cation-π effects between the oxidatively generated polydopamine (PD) and PTMAO. As expected, the fabricated membrane exhibited excellent superhydrophilicity and underwater superoleophobicity. The M–PD/PT/2:2 membrane achieved high efficiency of oil–water separation performance under ultra-low-pressure conditions, with an oil–water emulsion flux of 1121.1 L/m2 h, a recovery rate of 93.1%, and oil rejection as high as 99.2% in the cyclic oil–water emulsion separation process. Meanwhile, the M–PD/PT/2:2 membrane showed excellent stability. Therefore, this work provides a new idea for the preparation of superwetting membranes using dual-biomimetic techniques for effective separation of oil–water emulsion.

The Tritium Extraction eXperiment (TEX): A forced convection fusion blanket PbLi loop

A forced convection PbLi loop has been designed and constructed to test tritium extraction from molten PbLi. This Tritium Extraction eXperiment (TEX) is designed to operate at temperatures and tritium concentrations relevant to the helium cooled lead lithium, water cooled lead lithium, and dual coolant lead lithium breeding blankets. The major systems consist of a moving magnet pump, source permeator, supply tank, test section, and plenum. Additional subsystems, including flowmeters, pressure gauges, valves, and heaters are described. The versatile design of TEX will enable code validation using simple tubular membranes, as well as determining tritium extraction efficiencies for alternative test sections.

Safety and efficacy of substance-based medical devices: Design of an in vitro barrier effect test

This study aims to develop an in vitro barrier effect test over biomimetic membrane, which is useful to establish the film forming ability of a substance-based medical device (SB-MD). The method contemplates a multiparametric approach including: i) the measurement of the transmembrane passage of a molecular-like marker over a lipid-impregnated biomimetic membrane (simulating the skin and gastro-intestinal and buccal tissues) by using a static diffusion cell apparatus (Franz cell); and ii) the evaluation of the integrity of the membrane (colorimetric test). In the first step, a series of lipid-impregnated biomimetic membranes (simulating gastro-intestinal, buccal, and skin tissues) were implemented and their permeability performance validated using model drugs (caffeine and acyclovir) by referring to literature data. As a result, the apparent permeability (Papp) of caffeine over the biomimetic gastro-intestinal membrane (Papp = 30.5E-6 cm/s) was roughly comparable to the literature values obtained with Caco-2 cell line membrane (Papp = 30.8E-6 cm/s) and with the Franz cell method (Papp = 36.2E-6 cm/s). Acyclovir was shown to be a poorly permeable substance both in the literature and experimental data. Following this step, the permeability study was extended to both biomimetic buccal and skin (STRAT-M®) membranes: for caffeine, biomimetic gastro-intestinal membrane was the most permeable (Papp = 30.5E-6 cm/s), followed by the buccal (Papp = 18.2E-6 cm/s) then the skin (Papp = 0.5E-6 cm/s) biomimetic membranes. In a second part of the work, the barrier effect test was developed following a similar permeability-like approach. The protocol was designed with the idea of assessing the capacity of a certain product to prevent the passage of caffeine across the biomimetic membrane with respect to a negative and positive control. The untreated membrane was the negative control, while membrane covered with a Vaseline film was the positive. As a last step, the developed barrier effect protocol was applied to an experimental gel-like SB-MD under development for the treatment of aphthae (Aphthae gel, an invented trade name), herein used as a case study. Regarding the results, Aphthae gel reduced the caffeine passage by 60.3%, thus highlighting its effectiveness to form a protective film. Overall, these results provide important knowledge and may pave the way for the use—including for industrial applications—of these simple but effective biomimetic membranes for carrying out high throughput screening necessary to design safe and effective SB-MDs before proceeding further with clinical trials, as requested by the regulations.

Long-acting removal of high-toxic p-nitrophenol in wastewater via peroxymonosulfate activation by cyclic membrane catalysis

In this work, the commonly-used peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activator (copper oxide nanoparticles, CuO NPs) was steadily loaded on a polydopamine (PDA)/polyethyleneimine (PEI)-modified non-woven fabric (NWF) membrane via the typical in-situ deposition method. Distinguished from the simple membrane catalysis separation, the as-prepared hybrid membrane (CuO@PDA/PEI-NWF) showed the better ability in oxidizing the high-toxic p-nitrophenol (4-NP) in feed while its permeate liquid backflowing constantly with the aid of a cross flow device. Within 60 min, even a small area of CuO@PDA/PEI-NWF (9.0 cm2) with only ∼0.2 g weight could generate vast of reactive species (1O2, SO4•‾, and •OH) with trace PMS (1 mM) activation, and then reduced ∼40% of COD in a large volume (1 L) of 5 ppm 4-NP polluted water. The removal of 4-NP was further increased with more PMS added in the cyclic membrane catalysis system. The highest degradation rate could be achieved at pH close to the neutral state due to the better redox circle of Cu2+/Cu+ in the system. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) revealed that the 4-NP structure was primarily destroyed by the addition reaction of radicals (SO4•‾, and •OH), while its oxidation mineralization was caused by the formed 1O2, during the cyclic membrane catalysis system. Most importantly, this CuO@PEI/PDA-NWF/PMS cyclic system displayed excellent robustness and sustainability without tedious catalyst separation/regeneration processes in treating the 4-NP polluted real water. During 360 min of cyclic membrane catalysis, CuO@PEI/PDA-NWF caused the decrease of COD in Pearl River water with high concentration of 4-NP (20 ppm) up to ∼80%, indicating its high-efficiency and long-effectiveness. This study offers significant insights into developing novel cyclic membrane reactors with PMS activation for practically tricky wastewater treatment.

Salt rejection and scaling on non-conductive membranes in direct- and alternating-current electric fields

This study provides a comprehensive study about the salt rejection and fouling on non-conductive membranes in the electric fields of direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). A simple membrane cell design that facilitates the application of electric field on traditional non-conductive membrane was built. Then different salts and foulants were applied as the feeds in the electric fields with varying voltage, frequency, waveform and bias. The impact of AC and DC within 1V on ion rejection and organic fouling is insignificant due to the low current flow and membrane conductivity. However, scaling can be effectively mitigated by both DC and AC at tuned conditions. Current direction, frequency, waveform and bias are found to substantially influence the scaling tendency. The anti-scaling performance in AC field is attributed to the continuous motion of ions that disturbs nucleation and crystal growth. Compared to DC, AC may operate at lower power consumption, thus offering an energy-effective strategy for scaling reduction.

Building Model for Simulating the Effect of Main Factors on the PVDF Membrane Formation Process

Membrane separation technology has been widely studied as an effective means of treating wastewater. The method of mathematical modeling has been widely used in existing studies. In this study, we describe mathematically the conservation of mass, momentum and energy in a simple ternary membrane system, and construct basic control equations to simulate the main influencing factors. The system pressure P and system temperature T during the molding process were simulated in total, as well as the effects of the initial concentration of solvent in the polymer solution, the addition of non-solvent and the initial concentration of polymer on the evolution of the membrane structure. The results show that the concentration difference between the components, as the driving force of diffusion, jointly affects the diffusion ability of the PVDF; the system pressure P and the system temperature T change the rate of phase separation during the membrane formation process, which in turn changes the membrane structure. The influence of the initial concentration of each component on the membrane formation process is in the following order: polymer concentration > non-solvent concentration > solvent concentration, and the initial concentration of the polymer dominates the membrane formation process and its final morphology.

Phosphatidylinositol phase behavior in symmetric and asymmetric model membranes.

Phosphatidylinositol (PI) is a precursor to phosphoinositides (PIPs) which are important cellular signaling molecules. While the phase behavior of PI in simple model membranes has been investigated, little is known about its phase behavior in the presence of PIPs. Furthermore, the effect of divalent cations on PI/PIP interaction has not been detailed. Determining PI/PIP phase behavior is of physiological relevance because it potentially affects the lateral distribution of PIPs in cellular membranes and hence the spatiotemporal control of protein function. For diplamitoylphosphatidylinositol (DPPI) we find in pH 7.2 buffer a phase transition temperature of 43.6°C, while in the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+ the phase transition temperature shifts to 55.8°C and 51.6°C, respectively. In addition, we investigate divalent cation dependent PI/PI(4,5)P2 phase behavior. To study PI phase behavior in asymmetric lipid bilayers, we fabricate asymmetric giant unilamellar vesicles (aGUVs) using the hemifusion method. We describe the conditions to obtain aGUVS with PI in the outer leaflet and characterize their domain morphology.

Effect of activated carbon nanoparticles on the performance of PES nanofiltration membranes to separate kraft lignin from black liquor

In this work, activated carbon nanoparticles (AC) at concentrations ranging from 0 to 1 wt% were used to prepare polyethersulfone nanofiltration membranes. The effectiveness of these membranes in separating lignin from black liquor (BL) was evaluated under various operating conditions. The addition of AC improved all desirable properties. For instance, water permeability was increased by 57.50 % with the addition of 1 % AC and surface hydrophilicity was improved by reducing the contact angle from 66.8° to 55.2° for 0.5 % AC-based membranes compared to simple polymeric membranes. For BL filtration, 0.1 % AC-based membranes offered the highest flux with an improvement of 120 % at 24 bar and high lignin rejection compared to simple polymeric membranes. In addition, these membranes exhibited the highest water permeability recovery of 98.02 % when used for BL filtration followed by cleaning. During optimization tests of the main operating variables (temperature, pressure and pH) using 0.1 % AC-based membranes, it was found that extremely high conditions for each variable resulted in decreased performance in terms of fouling and lignin rejection. The best performance of these membranes in terms of flux, lignin rejection and fouling resistance was observed around 40 °C, 20 bar and 11.5 pH within the studied range. In this study, a new application for AC-based NF membranes was established for the separation of lignin from BL. The results of this study also showed that under optimal conditions, the performance of AC-based (0.1 %) membranes was improved for the efficient separation of lignin from BL with lower membrane fouling.

A Straightforward Method to Prepare MOF-Based Membranes via Direct Seeding of MOF-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles.

Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) present high surface areas, various pore topology as well as good stabilities. The functionalities and porosity can be tuned by using different linkers with various functional groups and a wide range of linker lengths. These properties make them good candidates in membrane separation applications. In this work, we propose a simple UiO-66 MOF-based membrane fabrication method following two steps. First, the α-alumina tubular membrane support was dip-coated with MOF-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (NPs). These NPs were prepared via one-pot synthesis by adding poly (methacrylic acid)-b-poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMAA-b-PMMA) NPs to the classical acetic acid-modulated UiO-66 or UiO-66-NH2 synthesis formulation. Second, secondary membrane growth was applied to give rise to a continuous and homogeneous crystalline MOF membrane layer. The gas permeances (He, N2, CO2 and SF6) tests confirmed high membrane permeability with no macro-defects. The as-prepared membranes that were used for dye separation (Rhodamine B) showed relatively good separation capacity.

Visualizing Loss of Plasma Membrane Lipid Asymmetry Using Annexin V Staining.

Loss of plasma membrane lipid asymmetry contributes to many cellular functions and responses, including apoptosis, blood coagulation, and cell fusion. In this protocol, we describe the use of fluorescently labeled annexin V to detect loss of lipid asymmetry in the plasma membrane of adherent living cells by fluorescence microscopy. The approach provides a simple, sensitive, and reproducible method to detect changes in lipid asymmetry but is limited by low sample throughput. The protocol can also be adapted to other fluorescently labeled lipid-binding proteins or peptide probes. To validate the lipid binding properties of such probes, we additionally describe here the preparation and use of giant unilamellar vesicles as simple model membrane systems that have a size comparable to cells. Key features Monitoring loss of lipid asymmetry in the plasma membrane via confocal microscopy. Protocol can be applied to any type of cell that is adherent in culture, including primary cells. Assay can be adapted to other fluorescently labeled lipid-binding proteins or peptide probes. Giant unilamellar vesicles serve as a tool to validate the lipid binding properties of such probes. Graphical overview Imaging the binding of fluorescent annexin V to adherent mammalian cells and giant vesicles by confocal microscopy. Annexin V labeling is a useful method for detecting a loss of plasma membrane lipid asymmetry in cells (top image, red); DAPI can be used to identify nuclei (top image, blue). Giant vesicles are used as a tool to validate the lipid binding properties of annexin V to anionic lipids (lower image, red).

Glutaraldehyde functionalized modified chitosan and grafted on PVDF membrane to achieve oil-water separation

In recent years, there have been frequent offshore oil spills, and the discharge of industrial oily wastewater has not been properly solved, seriously affecting biological and water quality, and people's requirements for water quality are getting higher and higher, so it has become increasingly urgent to find green and efficient technologies and methods for separating oil-water mixtures. In this work, glutaraldehyde, a widely used crosslinker, is used to graft natural polysaccharide chitosan onto PVDF membrane, which greatly enhances the hydrophilicity of PVDF membrane, and the superhydrophilic superoleophobic CG-PVDF membrane prepared can be used to treat oily wastewater. The materials for preparing membranes are inexpensive, easy to obtain, and environmentally friendly, recyclable, and will not cause secondary pollution. Therefore, this green and simple membrane separation method for the treatment of oily wastewater is of great significance in sustainable development.

A Comparison between Various Polymeric Membranes for Oily Wastewater Treatment via Membrane Distillation Process.

Oily wastewater (OW) is detrimental towards the environment and human health. The complex composition of OW needs an advanced treatment, such as membrane technology. Membrane distillation (MD) gives the highest rejection percentage of pollutants in wastewater, as the membrane only allows the vapor to pass its microporous membrane. However, the commercial membranes on the market are less efficient in treating OW, as they are prone to fouling. Thus, the best membrane must be identified to treat OW effectively. This study tested and compared the separation performance of different membranes, comparing the pressure-driven performance between the membrane filtration and MD. In this study, several ultrafiltration (UF) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes (NFS, NFX, XT, MT, GC and FILMTEC) were tested for their performance in treating OW (100 ppm). The XT and MT membranes (UF membrane) with contact angles of 70.4 ± 0.2° and 69.6 ± 0.26°, respectively, showed the best performance with high flux and oil removal rate. The two membranes were then tested for long-term performance for two hours with 5000 ppm oil concentration using membrane pressure-filtration and MD. The XT membrane displayed a better oil removal percentage of >99%. MD demonstrated a better removal percentage; the flux reduction was high, with average flux reduction of 82% compared to the membrane pressure-filtration method, which experienced a lower flux reduction of 25%. The hydrophilic MT and XT membranes have the tendency to overcome fouling in both methods. However, for the MD method, wetting occurred due to the feed penetrating the membrane pores, causing flux reduction. Therefore, it is important to identify the performance and characteristics of the prepared membrane, including the best membrane treatment method. To ensure that the MD membrane has good anti-fouling and anti-wetting properties, a simple and reliable membrane surface modification technique is required to be explored. The modified dual layer membrane with hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties is expected to produce effective separation in MD for future study.

Deep eutectic solvent functionalized mesoporous silica SBA-15 based mixed matrix polymeric membranes for mitigation of CO2 (Extended Version)

The carbon dioxide (CO2) separation can be enhanced by using modified materials like a deep eutectic solvent (DES) modified mesoporous silica SBA-15 in polymeric support i.e polysulfone via mixed matrix membranes (MMMs). The pure SBA-15 and DES are potential candidates for the CO2 capturing and their combination has not been reported yet. In this work, a fresh DES was synthesized by combining equal concentrations of Decanoic acid and choline chloride by mass. MMMs were fabricated by DES functionalized SBA-15 (DES-SBA) filler. The DES-SBA-based polymeric MMMs of different compositions, from 5% to 20% with the difference of five each, were developed and subjected to the gas permeation analysis to evaluate relative selectivities and permeabilities of membranes. The DES-SBA-based MMMs were characterized by SEM and FTIR to obtain distribution analysis of filler in the polymer matrix as well as the cross-sectional and surface morphology and the structural analysis of membranes, respectively. The gas permeation evaluations have been utilized to mixed and pure gas samples and the findings of selectivities for CO2/N2 and CO2/CH4 and permeabilities of synthesized MMMs are being reported. The performance of the MMMs has been enhanced via functionalization of SBA-15 by DES as compared to the neat polysulfone (PSF) based simple membrane.

MOSAICS: A software suite for analysis of membrane structure and dynamics in simulated trajectories

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have become the predominant computational analysis method in membrane biophysics, as this technique is uniquely suited for investigations of complex molecular systems through the relevant physical principles. Owing to continued improvements in scope and performance, the trajectories generated through this approach contain ever-increasing amounts of information, which must be synthesized and simplified in post-analysis using tools that are not only mechanistically insightful but also computationally efficient and highly scalable. Here, we introduce MOSAICS, a self-contained high-performance suite of C++ software tools designed for advanced analyses of lipid bilayer structure and dynamics from MD trajectories. MOSAICS is to our knowledge the most comprehensive software suite of this kind, enabling analysis of a wide array of morphological and kinetic properties, for both simple and complex membranes, irrespective of system size or resolution. Importantly, MOSAICS is designed to provide spatial distributions of all computed quantities, with built-in masking tools, noise filtering, and statistical significance metrics to facilitate quantitative interpretations of the trajectory data; it is also fully parallelized and can therefore leverage the capabilities of supercomputing facilities. Despite its technical sophistication, MOSAICS is user-friendly and requires minimal computational expertise, making it accessible to researchers of all skill levels. This sofware suite can be freely downloaded at https://github.com/MOSAICS-NIH/.

Extra A Review of Nanofiltration Membrane Technology To Treat Water Problems

One of the most widely used membranes is the nanofiltration membrane, this membrane is formed from various nanomaterials, such as metal nanoparticles and metal oxides, carbon-based nanoparticles, metal organic frameworks, and micro or organic nanoparticles. Membrane separation processes are used to concentrate or fractionate liquids to produce two liquids with different compositions. This makes the nanofiltration process an alternative compared to conventional processes. The potential of nanofiltration membranes can be used in textile industry wastewater treatment, tofu liquid waste, tofu liquid waste treatment, batik wastewater testing, and groundwater management as drinking water. In addition, nanofiltration membrane technology can be used as a separator for a substance in the air, such as removal of cypermethrin, arsenic cream, concentration of lactic acid bacteria as a tasty probiotic, removal of carbosulfan, Zr-Hf separation, and can see the characterization and performance evaluation of the antifouling properties of membranes. . Based on the process, the performance of a membrane is determined by two simple factors, namely flux (permeate flow rate) and membrane selectivity.