Simple Clinical Scale Research Articles

Useful Tests for Hepatic Encephalopathy in Clinical Practice

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a serious complication of liver disease and portosystemic shunting that represents a continuum of neuropsychiatric changes and altered consciousness. It is classified as overt HE (OHE) when clinically apparent or as covert HE (CHE) in its mildest form. Progression of CHE to OHE and its impact of quality of life make its early diagnosis imperative. Several diagnostic techniques ranging from simple clinical scales to sophisticated computerized tests exist, yet diagnosis remains a challenge, due to the time, cost, and personnel involved. Psychometric tests appear promising due to their high sensitivity and low cost, but results are variable depending on age and education. The pros and cons of current diagnostic methods for OHE and CHE are reviewed, along with strategy for CHE testing.

Pediatric Intracerebral Hemorrhage Score

The intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) score is the most commonly used clinical grading scale for outcome prediction after adult ICH. We created a similar scale in children to inform clinical care and assist in clinical research. Children, full-term newborns to 18 years, with spontaneous ICH were prospectively enrolled from 2007 to 2012 at 3 centers. The pediatric ICH score was created by identifying factors associated with poor outcome. The score's ability to detect moderate disability or worse and severe disability or death was examined with sensitivity, specificity, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve. The pediatric ICH score components include ICH volume>2% to 3.99% of total brain volume (TBV): 1 point; ICH volume≥4% TBV: 2 points; acute hydrocephalus: 1 point; herniation: 1 point; and infratentorial location: 1 point. The score ranges from 0 to 5. At 3-month follow-up of 60 children, 10 were severely disabled or dead, 30 had moderate disability, and 20 had good recovery. A pediatric ICH score≥1 predicted moderate disability or worse with a sensitivity of 75% (95% confidence interval [CI], 59% to 87%) and a specificity of 70% (95% CI, 46% to 88%). A pediatric ICH score≥2 predicted severe disability or death with a sensitivity and specificity of 90% (95% CI, 55% to 99%) and 68% (95% CI, 53% to 80%), respectively. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for classifying outcome as severe disability or death was 0.88 (95% CI, 0.78-0.97). The pediatric ICH score is a simple clinical grading scale that may ultimately be used for risk stratification, clinical care, and research.

Intracerebral Hemorrhage Score and Volume as an Independent Predictor of Mortality in Primary Intracerebral Hemorrhage Patients.

We studied how well the original intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) score would predict mortality. All nine patients with an ICH score of 0 survived, whereas those having scores of 1, 2, 3, and 4 had 10, 53, 71, and 100% mortality, respectively. Thirty-nine patients were found to have hematoma of <30mL (56% survived), whereas 11 patients were found to have volume of >30mL (only 10% survived). The ICH score and volume is a simple clinical grading scale that allows risk stratification on presentation with ICH. The use of a scale such as the ICH score could improve standardization of clinical treatment protocols.

A Cohort Study for the Derivation and Validation of a Clinical Prediction Scale for Hospital-OnsetClostridium difficileInfection

To develop and validate a clinical prediction scale for hospital-onset Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). A community-based, 360-bed hospital located in the suburbs of a metropolitan area in the United States served as the setting for the present retrospective cohort study. The cohort consisted of patients admitted to the adult medical service over a six-year period from October 2005 to September 2011. The cohort was divided into derivation (October 2005 to September 2009) and validation (October 2009 to September 2011) groups. The primary outcome measure was hospital-onset CDIs identified as stool positive for C difficile after 48 h of hospital admission ordered for new-onset unformed stool by the treating physician. In the derivation phase, 35,588 patients were admitted to the medical service and 21,541 stayed in hospital beyond 48 h. A total of 266 cases of CDI were identified, 121 of which were hospital onset. The developed clinical prediction scale included the onset of unformed stool (5 points), length of hospital stay beyond seven days (4 points), age >65 years (3 points), long-term care facility residence (2 points), high-risk antibiotic use (1 point) and hypoalbuminemia (1 point). The scale had an area under the receiver operating curve (AUC) of 0.93 (95% CI 0.82 to 0.94) in predicting hospital-onset CDI, with a sensitivity of 0.94 (95% CI 0.88 to 0.97) and a specificity of 0.80 (95% CI 0.79 to 0.80) at a cut-off score of 9 on the scale. During the validation phase, 16,477 patients were admitted, of whom 10,793 stayed beyond 48 h and 58 acquired CDI during hospitalization. The predictive performance of the score was maintained in the validation cohort (AUC 0.95 [95% CI 0.93 to 0.96]) and the goodness-to-fit model demonstrated good calibration. The authors developed and validated a simple clinical prediction scale for hospital-onset CDI. This score can be used for periodical evaluation of hospitalized patients for early initiation of contact precautions and empirical treatment once it is validated externally in a prospective manner.

A simple clinical and MRI scale to predict good outcome in t-PA patients

Background and purpose: The frequency of good outcome at 3 months after tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) therapy is ∼35%. The present study aimed to devise a simple scale to predict good outcome using clinical factors and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings before and immediately after t-PA infusion.Methods: Consecutive patients with acute ischemic stroke treated with t-PA within 3 hours of stroke onset were studied prospectively. We assessed clinical factors independently associated with good outcome [modified Rankin scale (mRS): 0-1] at 3 months after t-PA therapy. We created a simple scale to predict good outcome in t-PA patients using factors selected by multivariate logistic regression analysis.Results: Subjects comprised 105 patients (69 men; median age, 74 years). Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed the following independent factors associated with good outcome: baseline National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) <11 [odds ratio (OR), 13·64; 95% confidence interval (CI), 3·588-51·822; P = 0·0001], glucose <150 mg/dl (OR, 3·76; 95%CI, 1·014-13·963; P = 0·0475), and early recanalization within 1 hour after t-PA infusion (OR, 5·28; 95%CI, 1·179-23·656; P = 0·0296). Those three variables were selected for use in the good outcome scale, with NIHSS <11 as 2 points, glucose <150 mg/dl as 1 point, and early recanalization as 1 point. Frequencies of patients with good outcome for each score were as follows: score 0, 0·0%; score 1, 7·1%; score 2, 43·5%; score 3, 65·4%; and score 4, 71·4%. The C statistic for the score was 0·849 (95%CI, 0·776-0·922).Conclusion: A simple clinical and MRI scale can predict good outcome in t-PA patients.

A Simple Clinical Scale to Stratify Risk of Recurrent Falls in Community-Dwelling Adults Aged 65 Years and Older

Correct identification of people at risk for recurrent falls facilitates the establishment of preventive and rehabilitative strategies in older adults. The purposes of this study were: (1) to develop and validate a simple clinical scale to stratify risk for recurrent falls in community-dwelling elderly people based on easily obtained social and clinical items and (2) to evaluate the added value of 3 clinical balance tests in predicting this risk. This was a prospective measurement study. A population of 1,618 community-dwelling people over 65 years of age underwent a health checkup, including performance of 3 clinical balance tests: the One-Leg-Balance Test, the Timed "Up & Go" Test, and the Five-Times-Sit-to-Stand Test. Falls were recorded using a self-administered questionnaire that was completed a mean (SD) of 25+/-5 months after the visit. Participants were randomly divided into either group A (n=999), which was used to develop the scale, or group B (n=619), which was used to prospectively validate the scale. Logistic regression analysis identified 4 variables that independently predicted recurrent falls in group A: history of falls, living alone, taking >or=4 medications per day, and female sex. Thereafter, 3 risk categories of recurrent falls (low, moderate, and high) were determined. Predicted probability of recurrent falls increased from 4.1% to 30.1% between the first and third categories. This scale subsequently was validated with great accuracy in group B. Only the Five-Times-Sit-to-Stand Test provided added value in the estimation of risk for recurrent falls, especially for the participants who were at moderate risk, in whom failure on the test (duration of >15 seconds) doubled the risk. Falls were assessed only once, and length of follow-up was heterogeneous (18-36 months). Clinicians could easily classify older patients in low-, moderate-, or high-risk groups of recurrent falls by using 4 easy-to-obtain items. The Five-Times-Sit-to-Stand Test provides added value to stratify risk for falls in people at moderate risk.

Predictors of aortic complicated lesions in stroke patients

Aortic complicated lesions (ACLs) should be associated with cerebral infarction. Our aim was to develop a simple clinical scale (ACL scale) to predict the presence of ACL. Consecutive stroke patients undergoing transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) examination were prospectively enrolled. We defined ACL as the presence of >4 mm wall thickness, ulceration or mobile plaque in aortic arch. We also examined carotid intima-media thickness (IMT), ankle-brachial index (ABI) and brachial-ankle pulse-wave velocity (baPWV). We compared the clinical characteristics of patients with ACL (ACL group) and without ACL (non-ACL group), and devised a new ACL scale to predict the presence of ACL. In all, 165 patients (male 108, age 66.9 years) were enrolled and of these, 38% had ACL. The patients of the ACL group were older than those of the non-ACL group (73.0+/-10.2 vs. 63.1+/-13.6 years, P=0.001). Peripheral artery disease (PAD) was more frequent in the ACL group (18 vs. 4%, P=0.004). IMT was thicker in ACL group than in the non-ACL group (1.29+/-0.74 vs. 1.11+/-0.79 mm, P=0.002), and baPWV was higher in the ACL group (2164.2+/-643.2 vs. 1833.7+/-492.9 cm s(-1), P=0.001). We used three variables for determining the ACL scale score; (1) age >70, (2) presence of PAD and (3) smoking. The frequencies of ACL associated with ACL scale scores were as follows: 6% of patients with ACL scale score 0, 40% with score 1, 58% with score 2 and 100% with score 3. The ACL scale can predict the presence of aortic complicated lesions.

Prognostic factors of spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage in haemodialysis patients and predictors of 30‐day mortality

The prognostic factors of intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) in haemodialysis (HD) patients are not fully clear and there is no standard clinical grading scale to predict 30-day mortality. Our aim was to develop such a scale. Records of all HD patients with spontaneous ICH presenting to Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan during 1994-2004 were reviewed. The study design was a retrospective analysis of data collected from one hospital. Prognostic factors were identified by Student's t-test and chi(2)-test. Independent predictors of 30-day mortality were determined by the logistic regression method. An outcome score based on a combination of these predictors was developed with weighting of independent predictors based on strength of association. The overall 30-day mortality rate was 67.3%. Prognostic factors independently associated with mortality were the Glasgow Coma Scale score (P < 0.001), age >/=70 years (P = 0.032), systolic blood pressure <130 mmHg or >/=200 mmHg (P = 0.016), ICH volume >/=30 mL (P = 0.012), presence of intraventricular haemorrhage (P = 0.004) and serum glucose >/=8.8 mmol/L (P = 0.023). The score was the sum of individual points assigned as follows: Glasgow Coma Scale score 12-15 (0 points), 9-11 (1), 3-8 (4); age <70 years, yes (0), no (2); and systolic blood pressure 130-199 mmHg, yes (0), no (1). The 30-day mortality rate increased steadily with score (P < 0.001). The outcome score is a simple clinical grading scale that allows risk stratification of HD patients presenting with ICH. This scale could be used to design treatment protocols and clinical research studies of ICH in HD patients.

Atherosclerotic Burden and Early Mortality in Acute Ischemic Stroke

The influence that previous clinical expressions of systemic atherosclerosis may have on evolution and early mortality in patients with acute ischemic stroke is not known. To evaluate the influence that atherosclerotic burden (ATB), assessed by a simple clinical scale, has on the 30-day mortality in patients with first-ever ischemic stroke. Retrospective review of case series from a prospective stroke record. An ATB score ranging from 0 to 2 was created using the history of ischemic heart disease and peripheral arterial disease. The impact of this score on the 30-day mortality was analyzed by multivariate regression analysis. Tertiary university hospital. Patients A total of 1527 patients with first-ever ischemic stroke. Main Outcome Measure Thirty-day mortality. The 30-day mortality rate was 13.8%. Multivariate regression analysis showed an association between the ATB score and the 30-day mortality (P<.001). Comparing patients having no previous ATB with those with an ATB score of 1 or 2, the odds ratio (OR) for 30-day mortality increased from 1.71 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.06-2.75) for patients with an ATB score of 1 to 5.90 (95% CI, 2.48-14.04) for those with an ATB score of 2. Age (OR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.03-1.08), National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score at admission (OR, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.18-1.25), atrial fibrillation (OR, 1.61; 95% CI, 1.10-2.35), hyperlipidemia as protector (OR, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.25-0.60), and glycemia at admission (OR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.02-1.12) were also predictors of 30-day mortality. Previous symptomatic atherosclerotic disease evaluated by a simple clinical score is an independent predictor of early mortality in patients with first-ever ischemic stroke.

Use of the original, modified, or new intracerebral hemorrhage score to predict mortality and morbidity after intracerebral hemorrhage.

A simple clinical scale of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), comprising the Glasgow Coma Scale score, age, infratentorial origin, ICH volume, and intraventricular hemorrhage, was recently shown to predict 30-day mortality. We studied how well the original ICH Score would predict morbidity and mortality and determined whether modification would improve the predictions. Patients admitted to a regional hospital with acute ICH in 1999 were reviewed. Independent predictors of mortality or good outcome (modified Rankin score <or=2) at 30 days were identified by logistic regression to devise a new ICH Score for comparison with the original Score. A modified Score was created by substituting National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) for the Glasgow Coma Scale. The mortality rate was 22%, and 35% had good outcome. Independent factors for mortality were high NIHSS score, intraventricular hemorrhage, subarachnoid extension, and narrow pulse pressure. Independent factors for good outcome were low NIHSS score and low admission temperature. For all ICH Scores, no patient had a maximum score of 6. Cutoff values of >or=3 and <3 provided the best Youden's index of diagnostic test in all ICH Scores for mortality and good outcome, respectively. The original and modified ICH Scores predict mortality equally well. The new and modified ICH Scores are slightly better for prediction of good outcome. All 3 ICH Scores are simple clinical grading scales. As reliable predictors of good outcome and/or mortality, they are useful in clinical research studies and standardization of clinical protocols.

The ICH score: a simple, reliable grading scale for intracerebral hemorrhage.

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) constitutes 10% to 15% of all strokes and remains without a treatment of proven benefit. Despite several existing outcome prediction models for ICH, there is no standard clinical grading scale for ICH analogous to those for traumatic brain injury, subarachnoid hemorrhage, or ischemic stroke. Records of all patients with acute ICH presenting to the University of California, San Francisco during 1997-1998 were reviewed. Independent predictors of 30-day mortality were identified by logistic regression. A risk stratification scale (the ICH Score) was developed with weighting of independent predictors based on strength of association. Factors independently associated with 30-day mortality were Glasgow Coma Scale score (P<0.001), age >/=80 years (P=0.001), infratentorial origin of ICH (P=0.03), ICH volume (P=0.047), and presence of intraventricular hemorrhage (P=0.052). The ICH Score was the sum of individual points assigned as follows: GCS score 3 to 4 (=2 points), 5 to 12 (=1), 13 to 15 (=0); age >/=80 years yes (=1), no (=0); infratentorial origin yes (=1), no (=0); ICH volume >/=30 cm(3) (=1), <30 cm(3) (=0); and intraventricular hemorrhage yes (=1), no (=0). All 26 patients with an ICH Score of 0 survived, and all 6 patients with an ICH Score of 5 died. Thirty-day mortality increased steadily with ICH Score (P<0.005). The ICH Score is a simple clinical grading scale that allows risk stratification on presentation with ICH. The use of a scale such as the ICH Score could improve standardization of clinical treatment protocols and clinical research studies in ICH.

The Brussels Sedation Scale: Use of a Simple Clinical Sedation Scale Can Avoid Excessive Sedation in Patients Undergoing Mechanical Ventilation in the Intensive Care Unit

Department of Intensive Care, Erasme University Hospital, Brussels, Belgium, and Department of Anaesthesiology, Brugmann University Hospital, Free University of Brussels, Brussels, Belgium Br. J. Anaesth., 83: 698–701, 1999

The Brussels sedation scale: use of a simple clinical sedation scale can avoid excessive sedation in patients undergoing mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit

Sedation is an important component of patient comfort in the intensive care unit (ICU), especially in those undergoing mechanical ventilation. Sedation that is too light or too deep can have important consequences, and therefore assessment of the degree of sedation should be an important part of patient management. Although there are many methods available to assess the degree of sedation, none is ideal. Therefore, we developed a new sedation scale and analysed its clinical impact in the management of patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. The study comprised two consecutive phases. In the first phase, the medical team did not use a sedation scale. In the second phase, the medical staff used the new sedation scale, comprising five levels, depending on the perceived degree of sedation: levels 1 and 2 = oversedation; levels 3 and 4 = correct sedation; and level 5 = undersedation. There were no significant differences in mean or highest levels between patients in the two phases (mean 2.89 (SD 0.11) vs 2.67 (0.13), P = 0.22; highest 3.16 (0.11) vs 3.10 (0.14), P = 0.78). However, the lowest level was significantly greater in patients in the second phase than in those in the first phase (2.61 (0.11) vs 2.16 (0.13); P = 0.011), indicating that the number of patients with excessive sedation was significantly reduced with the introduction of this scale. Thus the use of this scale can have a real clinical impact for patients undergoing mechanical ventilation, principally by avoiding excessive sedation.

The Guy's Neurological Disability Scale (GNDS): a new disability measure for multiple sclerosis

A postal survey showed that the majority of 49 leading international neurologists involved with multiple sclerosis research felt that currently existing outcome measures for this illness were inadequate, and that there was a need for a new measure which should be patient orientated, multidimensional, and not biased towards any particular disability. The Guy's Neurological Disability Scale (GNDS) was subsequently devised as a simple and user-friendly clinical disability scale capable of embracing the whole range of disabilities which could be encountered in the course of multiple sclerosis. It has 12 separate categories which include cognition, mood, vision, speech, swallowing, upper limb function, lower limb function, bladder function, bowel function, sexual function, fatigue, and others'. The GNDS was found to be acceptable to neurologists and patients, reliable, responsive, and valid as a measure of disability. The scale was also found to be valid when applied by non-neurologists, over the phone, or via a postal questionnaire.

Outcome of delirium: Part 1. Outcome of delirium diagnosed by DSM-III-R, ICD-10 and CAMDEX and derivation of the Reversible Cognitive Dysfunction Scale among acute geriatric inpatients.

To study performance of DSM-III-R, ICD-10 and CAMDEX diagnoses of delirium as predictors of improvement in mental state in survivors, and to develop a brief rating scale which will predict reversibility of cognitive dysfunction. Prospective cohort study. Acute geriatric inpatient units. A random sample of consecutive acute admissions of patients over the age of 65 (N = 80). Serial assessments of mental state and cognitive function and observational data. Establishment of DSM-III-R, ICD-10, CAMDEX diagnoses. Patients with more than five points of 20% improvement in Mini Mental State Examination following the most severely impaired assessment operationally designated 'reversible cognitive dysfunction'. Diagnoses of delirium by DSM-III-R and ICD-10 do not predict improvement in cognitive function well; CAMDEX does rather better. Discriminant function analysis yielded the Reversible Cognitive Dysfunction Scale (RCDS), a simple clinical scale which accurately predicted improvement. This comprised reduced conscious level, poor attention, poor contact with the patient, incoherent speech, reduced psychomotor activity, lack of awareness of surroundings and poor orientation and memory. The concept of and diagnostic criteria for delirium should be reconsidered. The RCDS merits further evaluation.