Silvopastoral Systems Research Articles

The relationships between land tenure, cattle production, and climate change – A systematic literature review

Climate change is one of humanity’s greatest concerns because of its environmental, economic, and social impacts. Our study addresses land tenure (expressed through agrarian reforms) and traditional livestock farming (countered by practices such as silvopastoral systems) among the numerous causes of this phenomenon. To do this, we conducted a systematic literature review, based on empirical evidence from six countries in the Global South: Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa. The results reveal that agrarian reforms have contributed to deforestation but have not yielded positive effects such as improved access to credit for adopting sustainability practices. Furthermore, the implementation of silvopastoral systems faces common challenges, such as a lack of technical support and financial resources, thus hindering the mitigation of impacts from traditional livestock farming, particularly deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions. The historical perspective allows us to comprehend political responsibilities across the Global South when it comes to climate change. This assertion does not negate ongoing efforts to increase sustainability but underscores the need to overcome systemic challenges such as inadequate state control in certain territories or mismanagement of public resources.

Response of forage production to drought in silvopastoral systems in Argentina

Response of forage production to drought in silvopastoral systems in Argentina

Carbon balance in the silvopastoral systems of Caldén forest: sources or sinks of greenhouse gases?

Carbon balance in the silvopastoral systems of Caldén forest: sources or sinks of greenhouse gases?

Biogeochemistry of dissolved organic matter and inorganic solutes in soil profiles of tropical pasturelands

Tropical soils play a critical role in the global biogeochemical cycles and are essential for maintaining the Earth's carbon balance. Understanding the dynamics of dissolved organic matter (DOM) is paramount due to its implications for ecosystem functioning and nutrient cycling. This study comprehensively evaluated the origin, distribution, and composition of DOM and inorganic solutes in Brazilian tropical agricultural soils. Multiple analytical techniques were utilized to assess DOM from soil profiles (0–100 cm depth) across a spectrum of land uses, including a native Atlantic Forest, a degraded pasture, as well as intensive grazing, extensive grazing, and silvopastoral systems. Inorganic elements were quantified to assess the coupling between the organic and inorganic biogeochemical cycles. The dominance of C4 carbon in topsoil layers suggested substantial contributions of organic matter from grasses to the soil organic matter pool. However, with increased depth, C3 carbon inputs became more prominent, indicating the influence of forest vegetation that existed prior to the implementation of agricultural managements. DOM concentrations decreased with soil depth due to reduced carbon inputs, sorption to minerals, or oxidation. DOM composition did not show significant changes among different land use and managements. Lignin was identified as the primary contributor to oxidized DOM with increasing soil depth. The composition of DOM exhibited a shift from more aromatic and higher molecular weight compounds in topsoil layers to smaller, more aliphatic compounds in subsoil layers. Our key findings revealed that aliphatic compounds, particularly fatty acids, tend to accumulate in deeper soil layers. This phenomenon was consistent in pastures dominated by grasses but not in soils near treed vegetation. Overseeding (from C3 plants) did not significantly impact DOM compositions, emphasizing the persistence of C4 plants in these systems. The presence of inorganic elements in soil water extracts showed minimal impact on DOM dynamics, suggesting decoupled organic and inorganic biogeochemical cycles in tropical pasturelands.

Soil carbon stock potential in pastoral and silvopastoral systems in the Peruvian Amazon

AbstractResearch evaluating the impact of silvopastoral systems on physical and biological properties of Amazonian soils is scarce. Thus, this study aimed to compare the soil carbon storage potential and physical and chemical soil properties of silvopastoral systems (SPS) and conventional pastoral systems (CPS) in the San Martin region of Peru. Using the Walkley and Black method, we analyzed soil organic matter at two different depths (0–15 cm and 15–30 cm). In addition, bulk density, soil moisture, total porosity, and mechanical resistance were measured in both systems. The highest (P < 0.05) carbon stocks were reported at 0–15 cm of depth with values of 31.4 Mg ha−1 and 34.4 Mg ha−1 for CPS and SPS, respectively. At 15–30 cm depth, the total carbon stock was higher for SPS, with 29.12 Mg ha−1, than for CPS, which had 26.4 Mg ha−1. Despite the absence of statistically significant differences, soil carbon stocks were higher in SPS. No significant differences in soil moisture were found between systems, although soil moisture was slightly greater in SPS than CPS (28 and 25%, respectively). The CPS had 59% of the total porosity, which was higher than the SPS. Mechanical resistance was lower in SPS (2.15 kg/cm2) than in CPS (2.33 kg/cm2) at 10 cm of depth. These results indicated that the SPS has the potential to store more carbon and improve physical and chemical traits in the soil than the CPS.

Carbon and Methane as Indicators of Environmental Efficiency of a Silvopastoral System in Eastern Amazon, Brazil

Livestock systems have been identified as major emitters of greenhouse gases due to the use of extensive areas with degraded pastures. The objective of this study was to analyze carbon (CO2) and methane (CH4) fluxes in the atmosphere as indicators of environmental sustainability in silvopastoral systems. CO2 and CH4 fluxes from soil to the atmosphere were monitored in a degraded pasture (predominant species: Panicum maximum cv. Mombaça) grown in full sun and compared with areas with tree species (Bertholletia excelsa, Dipteryx odorata, and Khaya grandifoliola) and productive pasture (Panicum maximum cv. Mombaça) grown in full sun. The study area was in Mojuí dos Campos, western Pará state, Eastern Amazon, Brazil. The evaluations were conducted in a Technological Reference Unit with a silvopastoral system, where animals used the shade of trees during high-temperature periods. The fluxes were measured using an ultraportable greenhouse gas analyzer coupled with static polyvinyl chloride ring chambers installed at the soil–air interface. In conclusion, areas with integrated systems (B. excelsa + pasture and K. grandifoliola + pasture) were better mitigators of CO2 emissions; the highest emissions occurred in the degraded pasture area during the rainiest months. The CH4 fluxes were more intense in the areas with degraded pasture and K. grandifoliola + pasture. Converting degraded pasture areas into integrated crop–livestock–forest systems reduced greenhouse gas emissions in the Amazon over 10 years of implementation. The implementation of integrated crop–livestock–forest systems in long-deforested areas with degraded pastures and a low production capacity showed high potential for changes focused on developing sustainable agriculture in the Amazon.

Improving an agroforestry system with livestock in southern Brazil

Agroforestry systems hold significant environmental and cultural value but are yet to receive economic valorisation. In southern Brazil there is a centuries old agroforestry system called Caíva which is classified as a silvopastoral system, combining native trees, cattle herds and pastures. Caívas occupy significant land area and contribute to priceless forest conservation, maintaining rare and threatened trees, but challenges of legal insecurity, low economic yield and ineffective management are threatening the preservation of caívas. To address these challenges, the Agricultural Research and Rural Extension Company of Santa Catarina State (Epagri) began conducting research in 2006 to develop technologies that would increase productivity while maintaining forest cover. Their technology has shown promising results, increasing animal production by up to 400% while still maintaining the tree stratum and active forest regeneration. Epagri’s technologies are based on five activities: the selection of adapted perennial pastures, planting improved pastures without soil disturbance, soil liming and annual fertilisation, rotational grazing, and overseeding with ryegrass and clover during the autumn/winter period. By adopting Epagri's technologies, caíva owners can increase their income, maintain active forest regeneration, and ensure legal certainty over their properties. These strategies are primarily applicable to open and very open caívas, and it is recommended that other types of caívas be used for the preservation and provision of ecosystem services. Research on caivas improvement has shown multiple benefits, emphasising the importance of continued investment in research and development, to further valorise agroforestry systems. It is essential, however, to balance these productive improvements with the maintenance of permanent preservation areas and mixed ombrophilous forest landscapes.

Variation of biomass carbon stock within agroforestry systems in the Senegalese groundnut basin

Agroforestry plays a pivotal role in mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and addressing the challenges posed by climate change. While carbon sequestration efforts have primarily centred on forests, it is imperative to acknowledge the contribution that non-forest ecosystems, such as agroforestry, can offer. This study investigated the influence of agroforestry systems on the variation of biomass carbon stocks in the Sahelo-Sudanian and Sudanian regions of the Senegalese Groundnut basin. Three primary agroforestry systems were studied: silvopastoral, agrisilvicultural, and agrosilvopastoral. Forty-six (46) 100 m × 100 m plots were sampled, within which 1 × 1 m2 subplots were used to sample understory biomass across three agroforestry systems in the two climatic zones. Analysis of variance was performed to assess the influence of agroforestry systems and climatic zones on biomass carbon stocks. The findings showed that in the Sahelo-Sudanian region, the agrisilvicultural system exhibited the highest AGC + BGC stocks, averaging 43.42 ± 21.61 tCha−1. In contrast, the silvopastoral system showed significantly higher AGC + BGC stocks, which amounted to 36.33 ± 12.27 tCha−1 in the Sudanian region. On the other hand, understory carbon stocks were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in the agrisilvicultural and agrosilvopastoral systems than in the silvopastoral system in both climatic zones. Agroforestry systems had a significant effect on AGC + BGC stocks within climatic zones. Nevertheless, the effect was less pronounced when comparing across climatic regions. These results underscore the importance of specific land management practices interacting with local climatic conditions to influence AGC + BGC stocks. Therefore, policy makers should carefully consider the interaction of these factors when implementing carbon management practices and planning mitigation strategies in West Africa.

The Characterization of Pastures by Grazing Cycle and Evaluation of Supplementation with Agro-Industry Co-Products on the Performance of Buffaloes in the Humid Tropics.

The objective was to characterize the pastures by grazing cycle, as well as to evaluate the performance of buffaloes in intensive rotational grazing in a silvopastoral system in the eastern Amazon supplemented with agro-industry co-products in order to characterize the grazing cycles, the composition of the fractions, and the carcass yield. Fifteen non-castrated, crossbred water buffaloes (Murrah × Mediterranean) were used. All animals used in the study were clinically healthy and weighed approximately 458 kg. The animals were grazed in a single group, and supplementation (1% of live weight-LW/day) was divided into three treatments: control (control-conventional ingredients); Cocos nucifera coconut cake (Cocos nucifera) (coconut cake-70%); and palm kernel cake (Guinean elaeis) (palm kernel cake-70% palm kernel cake). The chemical composition of the forage is different in each part of the plant, with higher protein values in the leaves (11.40%) and higher acid detergent fiber (ADF) values in the stems (50.03%). Among the ingredients of the supplement, corn has the highest percentage of indigestible protein (35.57%), most of the protein in palm kernel cake is B3 (49.11%), and in Coco, B2 (51.52%). Mombasa grass has a higher percentage of B3 and B2 proteins; the indigestible fraction is lower in the leaves (17.16%). The leaf/stem ratio also varied between grazing cycles, being better in the second cycle (2.11%) and with an overall average of 1.71. Supplement consumption varied between cycles and was higher in the control treatment, with an overall mean of 4.74. There was no difference in daily weight gain and carcass yield, with an average of 1 kg/day and 49.23%, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that including supplements based on by-products from the coconut and palm oil agro-industries promotes performance and carcass yields compatible with conventional supplements. Their use reduces production costs, optimizes the utilization of forage mass, enhances the sustainability of the production chain, and, therefore, is recommended.

Traditional Yerba Mate Agroforestry Systems in Araucaria Forest in Southern Brazil Improve the Provisioning of Soil Ecosystem Services

Soils are a source of natural capital that provide and regulate a range of ecosystem services (ES) and play an important role in sustaining human welfare. Nonetheless, the quality and quantity of soil ecosystem services (SES) delivery over the long term depend on the use of sustainable land management practices. In the present study, we assessed seven SES using a set of soil quality indicators in four production systems based on yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil) in the Araucaria Forest biome of Southern Brazil: two sites were under traditional agroecological agroforestry management, one was a silvopastoral system with dairy pasture, and the last one was a monoculture yerba mate production system. The SES measured were soil fertility, carbon sequestration, erosion control, nutrient cycling, plant provision, biodiversity, and health. Soil samples were collected at various depths and analysed for chemical, physical, and biological attributes. A principal component analysis on the dataset showed that the soil quality indicators that best represent the variance between the systems at the 0–10 cm layer were acidity, microbial activity (FDA), total nitrogen, (TN), structural stability index (SSI), cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH, sum of bases (SB), microbial quotient (qMic), density of earthworms (EwD), bulk density (BD), and carbon stocks (Cstock). Soil quality indicators ranging from 0 to 1 were used to graphically represent the set of SES. The indicator-based approach used to explain the differences among the four production systems was able to capture the soil functions and offered a good starting point for quantifying SES provision.

Dalbergia nigra (Vell.) grown using hydrogel planting methods in the establishment of a silvopastoral system in a degraded soil

This work tested the use of a superabsorbent polymer (hydrogel) in a silvopastoral system with Brazilian-rosewood (Dalbergia nigra (Vell.) Allemão ex Benth.) in a degraded pasture area. The experimental site is part of the Bananal do Norte experimental farm, Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, Espírito Santo, Brazil. Over 480 seedlings were planted and submitted to the treatments: Dry hydrogel (DRY); Hydrated hydrogel around the root ball (HAR); Hydrated hydrogel mixed with soil (HMS); and water only (WAT). The design was in randomized blocks, with three repetitions. The tested variables were plant survival, height and root collar diameter until 672 days after planting, soil moisture at 93 days after planting and total biomass and leaf chemical analysis at 184 days after planting. Survival was positively influenced by the application of the hydrogel, but there was little or no effect regarding the application method. The hydrogel and its application techniques did not alter growth in height and root collar diameter. The polymer did not influence the development in biomass and nutritional content of the leaves, but did influence the biomass distribution. The use of the superabsorbent polymer was therefore not effective in accelerating plant growth and anticipating the stages in the implantation of the silvopastoral system. Keywords: agroforestry, brazilian-rosewood, degraded pasture.

Resource selection by Sarda cattle in a Mediterranean silvopastoral system.

Knowledge of how grazing cattle utilize heterogeneous landscapes in Mediterranean silvopastoral areas is scarce. Global positioning systems (GPS) to track animals, together with geographic information systems (GIS), can relate animal distribution to landscape features. With the aim to develop a general spatial model that provides accurate prediction of cattle resource selection patterns within a Mediterranean mountainous silvopastoral area, free-roaming Sarda cows were fitted with GPS collars to track their spatial behaviors. Resource selection function models (RSF) were developed to estimate the probability of resource use as a function of environmental variables. A set of over 500 candidate RSF models, composed of up to five environmental predictor variables, were fitted to data. To identify a final model providing a robust prediction of cattle resource selection pattern across the different seasons, the 10 best models (ranked on the basis of the AIC score) were fitted to seasonal data. Prediction performance of the models was evaluated with a Spearman correlation analysis using the GPS position data sets previously reserved for model validation. The final model emphasized that watering point, elevation, and distance to fences were important factors affecting cattle resource-selection patterns. The prediction performances (as Spearman rank correlation scores) of the final model, when fitted to each season, ranged between 0.7 and 0.94. The cows were more likely to select areas lower in elevation and farther from the watering point in winter than in summer (693 ± 1 m and 847 ± 13 m vs. 707 ± 1 m and 635 ± 21 m, respectively), and in spring opted for the areas furthest from the water (963 ± 12). Although caution should be exercised in generalizing to other silvopastoral areas, the satisfactory Spearman correlations scores from the final RSF model applied to different seasons indicate resource selection function is a powerful predictive model. The relative importance of the individual predictors within the model varied among the different seasons, demonstrating the RSF model's ability to interpret changes in animal behavior at different times of the year. The RSF model has proven to be a useful tool to interpret the spatial behaviors of cows grazing in Mediterranean silvopastoral areas and could therefore be helpful in managing and preserving ecosystem services of these areas.

Productive behavior of sheep in a silvopastoral system of Leucaena leucocephala associated with Megathyrsus maximus var. Mombasa versus natural field

Productive behavior of sheep in a silvopastoral system of Leucaena leucocephala associated with Megathyrsus maximus var. Mombasa versus natural field

Tree Diversity and Its Ecological Importance Value in Silvopastoral Systems: A Study along Elevational Gradients in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, Ecuadorian Amazon

This study analyzes tree diversity and its ecological importance value in silvopastoral systems in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve (SBR), Ecuador, along an altitudinal gradient of 400–2000 masl. Twenty-six plots distributed into low (400–700 masl), medium (701–1600 masl) and high (1601–2000 masl) zones were used. The Shannon index and the importance value index (IVI), based on abundance, dominance and relative frequency, were estimated. The results highlight that in pastures with dispersed trees, the richness of trees decreases with increasing altitude in the elevational gradient; they also show a higher tree density at lower altitudes in contrast to the Andean–Amazonian primary forests. The lower and middle zones showed higher diversity, linked to regeneration and the presence of nearby forests. Species of high commercial value, such as Cedrela odorata and Jacaranda copaia, were common, reflecting knowledge of the local timber market. In the lower and middle zones, the 10 most important species accounted for more than 70% of the trees, with up to 96% in the upper zone. A total of 51 taxa (including 42 species and nine taxa at the rank of genus) were identified, which were mostly native; 64.7% are classified by the IUCN as least-concern (LC) species, 31.4% as not evaluated (NE) species and 3.9% as vulnerable (VU) species, specifically highlighting Cedrela odorata and Cedrela montana. The study concludes with policy recommendations related to the importance of trees in silvopastoral systems for the conservation of species and the livelihoods of local communities, highlighting the need for responsible management of Amazonian pasturelands.

Farm Animal Welfare-From the Farmers' Perspective.

Improvements in the welfare of animals in the intensive production industries are increasingly being demanded by the public. Scientific methods of welfare improvement have been developed and are beginning to be used on farms, including those provided by precision livestock farming. The number of welfare challenges that animals are facing in the livestock production industries is growing rapidly, and farmers are a key component in attempts to improve welfare because their livelihood is at stake. The challenges include climate change, which not only exposes animals to heat stress but also potentially reduces forage and water availability for livestock production systems. Heat-stressed animals have reduced welfare, and it is important to farmers that they convert feed to products for human consumption less efficiently, their immune system is compromised, and both the quality of the products and the animals' reproduction are adversely affected. Livestock farmers are also facing escalating feed and fertiliser costs, both of which may jeopardise feed availability for the animals. The availability of skilled labour to work in livestock industries is increasingly limited, with rural migration to cities and the succession of older farmers uncertain. In future, high-energy and protein feeds are unlikely to be available in large quantities when required for the expanding human population. It is expected that livestock farming will increasingly be confined to marginal land offering low-quality pasture, which will favour ruminant livestock, at the expense of pigs and poultry unable to readily digest coarse fibre in plants. Farmers also face disease challenges to their animals' welfare, as the development of antibiotic resistance in microbes has heralded an era when we can no longer rely on antibiotics to control disease or improve the feed conversion efficiency of livestock. Farmers can use medicinal plants, pro-, pre- and synbiotics and good husbandry to help maintain a high standard of health in their animals. Loss of biodiversity in livestock breeds reduces the availability of less productive genotypes that survive better on nutrient-poor diets than animals selected for high productivity. Farmers have a range of options to help address these challenges, including changing to less intensive diets, diversification from livestock farming to other enterprises, such as cereal and pseudocereal crops, silvopastoral systems and using less highly selected breeds. These options may not always produce good animal welfare, but they will help to give farm animals a better life.

Co-Creating Strategies to Optimize Traditional Silvopastoral Systems through the Management of Native Trees in Caívas in Southern Brazil

The conservation of forest remnants in southern Brazil is closely related to historical land use, for example in systems such as caívas that occur within remnants of the Araucaria Forest and include livestock production and the extraction of yerba mate. Over the last decade, technologies adapted for these systems have been developed that promote a significant increase in animal productivity, without harming forest regeneration or the maintenance of the tree layer. However, the fertilization of pastures proposed in the technology has also promoted greater growth of native trees, with a consequent increase in shade levels. This, in turn, has affected the maintenance of pasture and yerba mate in the understory. Thus, this study sought to develop a methodology to adjust shade levels based on forest management that adheres to the limits permitted by current legislation. The objective was to evaluate the effect of tree management to maintain 50% shade levels on environmental indicators in a caíva that has been implementing pasture improvement technology since 2013. Native tree management occurred in 2020 and 2022 and the results were compared with data from the floristic survey of the area carried out in 2013. The results indicate that although the adoption of forest management to adjust shade levels reduced the density of individuals, it did not affect forest diversity, nor the basal area of the caíva tree layer. As such, it is possible to maintain pasture and yerba mate production in the area. Strategies like this are fundamental so that the forest landscape can continue to offer a source of production while also supporting environmental conservation.

The distance from tree legumes in silvopastoral systems modifies the litter in grass-composed pastures

AbstractThe use of silvopastoral systems with tree legumes is a viable alternative to recover and develop pastures, as they add N to the system influencing pasture growth. This study hypothesized that the herbage and litter of signalgrass (Urochloa decumbens Stapf) is affected by legume trees in the pasture. Treatments were composed of (1) signalgrass + Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth.; (2) signalgrass + Gliricidia sepium Jacq.; and (3) signalgrass monoculture. The 3-year experiment followed a randomized complete block design with three replications. Tree legumes were planted in double rows (15 × 1 × 0.5 m), in 1 ha paddocks. Litter samples were taken in five distance points (0, 1.8, 3.7, 5.6 and 7.5 m) perpendicular to tree legume rows. Signalgrass was taller at longer distances from the trees (P &lt; 0.05). Signalgrass height differed between treatments, with taller signalgrass found in pastures mixed with G. sepium (15.6 cm) compared to M. caesalpiniifolia (9 cm) (P &lt; 0.05). Herbage N content decreased with increasing distance from tree rows (P &lt; 0.05). Litter N content followed a similar pattern, ranging from 23 g/kg under the trees to 12 g/kg at 7.5 m away from tree rows. Signalgrass did not grow under the tree crown (0–1.8 m), especially when intercropped with M. caesalpiniifolia. The findings of this study suggest that the type of legume trees used in the silvopastoral system has the potential to modify the pattern of grass growth and content of N in pasture litter.

Silvopastoral systems in the Upper Atlantic Forest of Argentina: what type of farms adopt them and how?

Silvopastoral systems in the Upper Atlantic Forest of Argentina: what type of farms adopt them and how?

Overseeding oat into limpograss: The effect of trees on animal performance and profitability

AbstractThe overseeding of cool‐season species into dormant warm‐season species and tree inclusion in open pastures are potential options for improving forage quality and extending the grazing period, thus contributing to sustainable livelihoods. However, warm‐season species respond differently to cool‐season overseeding. To our knowledge, there are no reports concerning the use of the overseeding method in limpograss [Hemarthria altissima (Poir.) Stapf &amp; Hubb.] pastures, particularly in silvopastoral systems. A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the suitability of oat (Avena sativa L.) overseeding into a limpograss pasture in two systems located in a subtropical region, silvopastoral versus open pasture, for 3 consecutive years. The presence of trees had a significant impact on dry matter yield and animal gain per hectare (Gha) during periods of drought. A maximum Gha of 363 kg live weight (LW) ha−1 was observed on limpograss pasture, over 139 days of grazing, after oat overseeding. In contrast, the maximum Gha on oat pasture was only 174 kg LW ha−1. However, it was still possible to obtain up to 112 grazing days in an area that would be fallow in winter. The maximum annual profit obtained was $673.0 ha−1 in the second year, with no differences between systems. To increase economic profits, farmers may search for strategies that add value to silvopastoral products.

Potential application of Latin American silvopastoral systems experiences for improving ruminant farming in Nigeria: a review

Potential application of Latin American silvopastoral systems experiences for improving ruminant farming in Nigeria: a review