Silent Reading Research Articles

Unpacking automaticity: Scaffolded texts and comprehension

AbstractAutomaticity in recognizing the words in a text is fundamental to comprehension. If the number of words readers need to stop and decode exceeds their ability to retain their understanding of a narrative's plot or an expository text's description, their comprehension suffers. The conventional intervention for students who lack the automaticity to adequately comprehend text has been to repeatedly read texts orally. The current review first addresses evidence for this conventional treatment, concluding that students have not shown substantial increases in silent reading comprehension. Next, this review presents evidence underlying an alternative perspective for automaticity support where texts are selected to support students in increasing their automaticity with the words they will encounter consistently—the 2500 morphological families that have been shown to account for at least 90% of most school texts. Finally, guidelines for teachers are provided that address the talk, tasks, and time of instruction, as well as texts, for automaticity.

Embodied Semantics: Early Simultaneous Motor Grounding in First and Second Languages

Background/Objectives: Although the embodiment of action-related language is well-established in the mother tongue (L1), less is known about the embodiment of a second language (L2) acquired later in life through formal instruction. We used the high temporal resolution of ERPs and topographic ERP analyses to compare embodiment in L1 and L2 and to investigate whether L1 and L2 are embodied with different strengths at different stages of linguistic processing. Methods: Subjects were presented with action-related and non-action-related verbs in a silent reading task. Subjects were late French–German and German–French bilinguals, respectively, and we could therefore collapse across languages to avoid common confounding between language (French and German) and order of acquisition (L1, L2). Results: We could show distinct effects of embodiment and language. Embodiment affected only the sensory and lexical stages of processing with increased strength and power of the N1 component for motor vs. non-motor verbs, and language affected the lexical and semantic stages of processing with stronger P2/N400 components for L2 than for L1. Non-motor verbs elicited a stronger P1 component in L2. Conclusions: Our results suggest that processing words in L2 requires more effortful processing. Importantly, L1 and L2 are not embodied differently, and embodiment affects early and similar stages of processing in L1 and L2, possibly integrating other process of action–language interaction

Oral reading promotes predictive processing in Chinese sentence reading: eye movement evidence.

Fluent sentence reading is widely acknowledged to depend on top-down contextual prediction, wherein sentential and contextual cues guide the pre-activation of linguistic representations before encountering stimuli, facilitating subsequent comprehension. The Prediction-by-Production hypothesis posits an explanation for predictive processes in language comprehension, suggesting that prediction during comprehension involves processes associated with language production. However, there is a lack of eye movement evidence supporting this hypothesis within sentence reading contexts. Thus, we manipulated reading mode and word predictability to examine the influence of language production on predictive processing. Participants engaged in silent or oral reading of sentences containing either high or low-predictable target words. Eye movements were recorded using the Eyelink1000 eye tracker. The findings revealed a higher skipping rate and shorter fixation times for high-predictable words compared to low-predictable ones, and for silent compared to oral reading. Notably, interactive effects were observed in the time measures (FFD, SFD, GD) during first-pass reading, indicating that word predictability effects were more pronounced during oral reading than silent reading. The observed pattern of results suggests that the activation of the production system enhances predictive processing during the early lexical access, providing empirical support for the Prediction-by-Production hypothesis in eye movement sentence reading situations, extending the current understanding of the timing and nature of predictions in reading comprehension.

Silent score reading: Four Swedish choral conductors’ conceptions, processes, and strategies

Silent score reading: Four Swedish choral conductors’ conceptions, processes, and strategies

Building Knowledge across Language Systems: The Role of Audio and Visual Supports in Bilingual Learning through Self-Derivation

Children who enter the US education system as emerging bilinguals (or English Learners) show significant gaps in test scores and graduation rates compared to their English monolingual peers. Dual-language education programs may provide an instructional context that capitalizes on emerging bilingual children’s strengths and supports their academic performance while they acquire English. However, prior research has shown that integrating semantic knowledge across language systems poses a challenge. Supports may mitigate these challenges. Thus, across two studies, we examined instructional practices that may facilitate the integration of academic content across English and Spanish in elementary-age children enrolled in dual-language education programs. In Study 1, we examined whether facts presented through reading-while-listening or children’s silent self-paced reading more effectively supported learning the facts and subsequent integration for dual-language students in grades 3 and 4 (n = 56; Mage = 9.54 years). In Study 2, we examined whether combining graphics with text was more effective in supporting fact learning and cross-language integration compared to facts presented as text alone in dual-language students in grades 4 and 5 (n = 67; Mage = 10.48 years). Overall, the studies replicate the benefits of reading-while-listening and graphics for learning directly taught facts, but underscore the difficulty in integrating semantic knowledge across lessons and languages.

Which Encoding Techniques Facilitate Comprehension?

Previous work suggests that similar cognitive processes contribute to memory and comprehension. This is unsurprising as both begin with a common process: encoding. Despite this, the investigation of techniques that benefit memory and comprehension has proceeded separately. In the current study, we compared the robust memory techniques of production and drawing to a similarly effective comprehension strategy known as paraphrasing. Depending on the group, participants were asked to either engage in one of the encoding types (read aloud, draw, or paraphrase) or to silently read 20 term-definition pairs (randomly intermixed and counterbalanced). The encoding techniques of drawing and paraphrasing resulted in better performance on a multiple-choice test of concept comprehension, relative to silently reading. By contrast, reading aloud at encoding did not lead to any benefit relative to silently reading. The results suggest that techniques that invoke transformation of the to-be-remembered text into another format, be it into a picture (drawing) or personally relevant summary (paraphrasing), are particularly effective at improving comprehension. By contrast, encoding techniques that mainly provide a perceptual repetition (production and silent reading) are less effective.

Effectiveness of production and drawing as encoding techniques on recall using mixed- and pure-list designs

ABSTRACT We compared the benefit of production and drawing on recall of concrete and abstract words, using mixed- and pure-list designs. We varied stimulus and list types to examine whether the memory benefit from these strategies was sustained across these manipulations. For all experiments, the memory retrieval task was free recall. In Experiment 1, participants studied concrete and abstract words sequentially, with prompts to either silently-read, read aloud, write, or draw each target (intermixed). Reading aloud, writing, and drawing improved recall compared to silent reading, with drawing leading to the largest boost. Performance, however, was at floor in all but the drawing condition. In Experiment 2, the number of targets was reduced, and each strategy (between-subjects) was compared to silent-reading. We eliminated floor effects and replicated results from Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, we manipulated strategy in a pure-list-design. The drawing benefit was maintained while that from production was eliminated. In all experiments, recall was higher for concrete than abstract words that were drawn; no such effect was found for words produced. Results suggest that drawing facilitates memory by enhancing semantic elaboration, whereas the production benefit is largely perceptually based. Importantly, the memory benefit conferred by drawing at encoding, unlike production, cannot be explained by a distinctiveness account as it was relatively unaffected by study design.

Exploring Undergraduate Students’ Perceptions Toward Extensive Reading Course

The importance of extensive reading is undeniable. Through implementing extensive reading, students can obtain many benefits toward their English proficiency. Although much research has been conducted towards implementing ER, few study underlying the students’ perceptions as the subject of ER implementation. Thus, this research aims at exploring the students’ perceptions towards their ER course. Further, this research also aims at exploring the students’ outcomes gained from the ER course. This study used qualitative descriptive design, the participants in this study are undergraduate students who have experience on extensive reading course at private university in Makassar. The sampling technique used in this study was purposive sampling involving 7 participants. In-depth interview data collection technique was used in this study and the results obtained were analyzed using thematic analysis. The results show that the extensive reading course improved the students' reading fluency, reading comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, writing ability, and reading motivation, among other five areas. The way ER principles are applied throughout the training has an impact on those benefits. Easy reading materials, a variety of available materials, authority in material selection, frequent reading, speed reading, silent reading, meaningful reading, enjoyable reading, teacher direction, and the teacher as a role model are the concepts that are put into practice

The Primary School Student Attitudes towards Silent Reading

The Primary School Student Attitudes towards Silent Reading

Proprioceptive intervention improves reading performance in developmental dyslexia: An eye-tracking study

Developmental dyslexia is characterized by difficulties in learning to read, affecting cognition and causing failure at school. Interventions for children with developmental dyslexia have focused on improving linguistic capabilities (phonics, orthographic and morphological instructions), but developmental dyslexia is accompanied by a wide variety of sensorimotor impairments. The goal of this study was to examine the effects of a proprioceptive intervention on reading performance and eye movement in children with developmental dyslexia. Nineteen children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia were randomly assigned to a regular Speech Therapy (ST) or to a Proprioceptive and Speech Intervention (PSI), in which they received both the usual speech therapy and a proprioceptive intervention aimed to correct their sensorimotor impairments (prism glasses, oral neurostimulation, insoles and breathing instructions). Silent reading performance and eye movements were measured pre- and post-intervention (after nine months). In the PSI group, reading performance improved and eye movements were smoother and faster, reaching values similar to those of children with typical reading performance. The recognition of written words also improved, indicating better lexical access. These results show that PSI might constitute a valuable tool for reading improvement children with developmental dyslexia.

Assessment of silent reading ability among glaucoma patients using an eye tracking system with horizontally scrolling text.

There have been many reports suggesting that glaucoma patients with visual field defects may have decreased silent reading ability compared with individuals without glaucoma. This study used an eye tracking system to assess the ability of glaucoma patients to silently read horizontally scrolling text. Glaucoma patients who met the following criteria were recruited: age of ≤ 70 years, at least one eye with a 10 - 2 threshold on standard automated perimetry, a mean deviation value of n 4.0 dB or less, and corrected decimal visual acuity of 0.7 or better in both eyes. Using heat map images created from data from an eye tracking system operating during presentation of a video in which a sentence scrolled horizontally from right to left, reading time, average gaze position, and average fixation time (AFT) were compared between normal eyes (23 individuals, 46 eyes) and glaucomatous eyes (25 patients, 45 eyes). Four styles of sentences (large slow, large fast, small slow, and small fast) were scrolled in the top or bottom sections of the screen. Primary open-angle glaucoma was the most common type of glaucoma in 34 eyes (75.6%), followed by secondary glaucoma in six eyes (13.3%). In comparison with normal eyes, the reading time among right eyes was significantly longer in glaucomatous eyes when reading large fast text that was shown in the bottom area and left glaucomatous eyes showed a leftward shift in gaze position in the top, bottom, or both sections with all four sentence types. There was no significant difference in AFT between glaucomatous and normal eyes across the four sentence styles. In the left eye with inferior visual field loss, text presented at the top consistently showed a correlation with leftward shift of the gaze position across all scenarios. Glaucoma patients with central visual field defects in their left eyes may experience greater difficulty reading horizontally scrolling text than individuals with normal eyes.

Conflict Detection in Language Processing: Using Affect Control Theory to Predict Neural Correlates of Affective Incongruency in Social Interactions

Affect control theory (ACT) is a sociological theory of meaning processing in social interactions. Meaning, according to ACT, derives from cultural institutions and situational affordances, having denotative (declarative) as well as connotative (affective) properties. Mathematical formalizations of ACT allow predictions of affective incongruency (in the terminology of ACT, deflection), which arises from conflicting institutional and situational meanings in a given interaction context. Although ACT is theoretically consistent, its propositions regarding cognitive and affective processing have rarely been tested. The present study fills this gap by investigating the neural processing of affective incongruency in linguistic descriptions of social interactions. Following a neurosociological paradigm, the study draws on neurocognitive evidence on the effects of words’ affective content on word processing as well as on a previous electroencephalography study that investigated processing of affective incongruency using event-related brain potentials. We hypothesized that affective incongruency is associated with activation in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a brain area known for conflict processing. To test this hypothesis, we replicated the electroencephalography study using functional magnetic resonance imaging: We visually presented sentences describing social interactions to 23 participants in a silent reading task while measuring differences in the hemodynamic response in two conditions of affective congruency. Results show expected increases in neural activity for affectively incongruent sentences in the left ACC, supporting the assumption that affective language content influences meaning-making at very early semantic processing stages. The results also add to the emerging neuroscientific evidence for ACT’s mathematical model of impression formation.

Implementation Silent Reading for English Subject at Islamic Education Department at STIT Aqidah Usymuni Sumenep

Silent reading refers to the act of reading without vocalizing the words. With this in mind, the researcher aimed to explore students' silent reading comprehension. This study adopted a qualitative research approach. Qualitative research, involves the systematic collection of data to uncover underlying patterns or meanings using scientific methods, typically pursued by researchers interested in understanding the nature of a phenomenon. This research used students of the Islamic Education Department at STIT Aqidah Usymuni Sumenep as objects. The conclusion showed that silent reading can also inspire students to share diverse ideas while reading silently. Students can acquire more information when they read in a quiet environment. When the conditions allow students to read comfortably, their concentration improves, and they can easily grasp the key points of the English text.

The role of prosodic information in silent reading: An eye–tracking study

The role of prosodic information in silent reading: An eye–tracking study

Persepsi Siswa SD dalam Penggunaan Strategi Reading Aloud dan Sustained Sailent Reading Terhadap Kemampuan Menjelaskan Isi Bacaan

This article examines the perceptions of upper grade elementary school students towards the use of reading aloud and sustained silent reading strategies in improving the ability to explain the content of reading. This research uses a qualitative approach with descriptive methods. Data collection techniques include: (1) assessment of students' ability to explain the content of reading, (2) interviews with students regarding their perceptions of reading aloud and sustained silent reading strategies, and (3) documentation of the text reading process. The research instruments used were: (1) assessment sheet of the ability to explain the content of reading, (2) structured interview guide, and (3) documentation of students' reading process. The results showed that based on the assessment of the ability to explain the content of reading and interviews regarding the comparison between reading aloud and sustained silent reading strategies, it was concluded that the sustained silent reading strategy was more effective in learning. This is because the strategy makes it easier for students to understand and explain back the content of the reading.

Electroencephalographic Classification Reveals Atypical Speech Motor Planning in Stuttering Adults.

This study explores speech motor planning in adults who stutter (AWS) and adults who do not stutter (ANS) by applying machine learning algorithms to electroencephalographic (EEG) signals. In this study, we developed a technique to holistically examine neural activity differences in speaking and silent reading conditions across the entire cortical surface. This approach allows us to test the hypothesis that AWS will exhibit lower separability of the speech motor planning condition. We used the silent reading condition as a control condition to isolate speech motor planning activity. We classified EEG signals from AWS and ANS individuals into speaking and silent reading categories using kernel support vector machines. We used relative complexities of the learned classifiers to compare speech motor planning discernibility for both classes. AWS group classifiers require a more complex decision boundary to separate speech motor planning and silent reading classes. These findings indicate that the EEG signals associated with speech motor planning are less discernible in AWS, which may result from altered neuronal dynamics in AWS. Our results support the hypothesis that AWS exhibit lower inherent separability of the silent reading and speech motor planning conditions. Further investigation may identify and compare the features leveraged for speech motor classification in AWS and ANS. These observations may have clinical value for developing novel speech therapies or assistive devices for AWS.

A meta-analytical account of the functional lateralization of the reading network

The observation that the neural correlates of reading are left-lateralized is ubiquitous in the cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychological literature. Still, reading is served by a constellation of neural units, and the extent to which these units are consistently left-lateralized is unclear. In this regard, the functional lateralization of the fusiform gyrus is of particular interest, by virtue of its hypothesized role as a “visual word form area”. A quantitative Activation Likelihood Estimation meta-analysis was conducted on activation foci from 35 experiments investigating silent reading, and both a whole-brain and a bayesian ROI-based approach were used to assess the lateralization of the data submitted to meta-analysis. Perirolandic areas showed the highest level of left-lateralization, the fusiform cortex and the parietal cortex exhibited only a moderate pattern of left-lateralization, while in the occipital, insular cortices and in the cerebellum the lateralization turned out to be the lowest observed. The relatively limited functional lateralization of the fusiform gyrus was further explored in a regression analysis on the lateralization profile of each study. The functional lateralization of the fusiform gyrus during reading was positively associated with the lateralization of the precentral and inferior occipital gyri and negatively associated with the lateralization of the triangular portion of the inferior frontal gyrus and of the temporal pole. Overall, the present data highlight how lateralization patterns differ within the reading network. Furthermore, the present data highlight how the functional lateralization of the fusiform gyrus during reading is related to the degree of functional lateralization of other language brain areas.

Spelling principles matter: An ERP study investigating the processing of different types of pseudohomophones

Spelling in any writing system is governed by fundamental principles. We examined the processing of two types of pseudohomophones constructed from words whose spellings are based on different principles – on the traditional principle of writing, requiring memorization of their spelling, and on the morphological principle, allowing the determination of their spelling from another word with the same morpheme (root) to examine the dependence of the occurrence of orthography–phonology conflict on spelling principles. Event-related potentials were recorded from 22 volunteers during silent reading. Pseudohomophones based on the morphological principle increased the N400 amplitude, emphasizing semantic and morphological processing importance. The P600 component showed significant effects for differentiating words and pseudohomophones based on the traditional principle, predominantly indicating the involvement of memory and reanalysis processes. Source reconstruction demonstrates that both pseudohomophones activate the left inferior frontal gyrus. However, pseudohomophones based on the traditional principle additionally activate the right and left postcentral gyrus, indicating the involvement of additional areas in the differentiation process. The earlier differences for stimuli based on the morphological principle indicate access to smaller units (morphemes), whereas stimuli based on the traditional principle require whole word processing. Our findings underscore the significant role of spelling principles in orthographic processing.

Kemampuan Membaca dalam Hati Wacana Berbahasa Bali Siswa Kelas VIII.1 SMP Ngurah Rai Kerobokan, Kabupaten Badung

The research is conducted to achieve the following objectives: (1) to describe the silent reading ability of Balinese language texts by eighth-grade students (class VIII.1) at Ngurah Rai Kerobokan Junior High School, and (2) to describe the challenges faced by students when engaging in silent reading to comprehend the content of the text. This study aims to evaluate the reading comprehension ability of Balinese discourse among eighth-grade students (class VIII.1) at Ngurah Rai Kerobokan-Badung Junior High School. Data were collected and analyzed to determine the students' reading comprehension proficiency based on the assessment standards for Balinese language in eighth grade under the School-Based Curriculum (KTSP). The analysis revealed that the students' reading comprehension ability falls under the category of "less proficient," with an average score of 65. Despite the minimum passing grade (KKM) being set at 72, only 9 students (22.5%) were able to achieve it, while the remaining 31 students (77.5%) scored below the KKM. The main difficulties encountered by students in reading Balinese discourse include understanding vocabulary, language structure, and lack of interest in reading. Therefore, the majority of students are considered not proficient in reading Balinese discourse.

Vocal Configurations of Friday: Six Audiobook Versions of Robinson Crusoe

Robinson Crusoe is a novel obsessed with voice. Shipwrecked on his island, Crusoe teaches a parrot to speak and engages in silent conversations with God and himself and, when he finally meets Friday, he communicates in the discourses of master, educator, and companion. In silent reading of the print text, the reader subvocalises and dramatises the grammar, syntax, and pronunciation of Friday’s speech and more or less unconsciously creates a cohesive whole out of the dialogue sections and the passages narrated by Crusoe. In audiobook narration this process is externalised in the actual vocalisation of the text. The performing narrator has to make conscious choices depending on how he construes the Crusoe-Friday relationship and in what genre conventions he places it. Moreover, since Friday does not appear until two thirds into the text, the performing narrator needs to fit the last third into the overall vocal profile to produce a cohesive effect. This article focuses on the vocal configurations of Friday as manifest in six audiobook recordings of the novel. Material voice characteristics, such as quality, rhythm, and diction, as well as contextualising aspects of ethnicity, age, and nationality are taken into account. The rhetorical situation in which the performing narrator intensifies intentionality is also foregrounded.