Sikkim State Of India Research Articles

Characterization of a unique Sikkimese yak population of India: a multivariate approach

Native Sikkimese yak in Sikkim state of India is a pastoral treasure being raised through centuries-old transhumance practices and has evolved in response to natural and man-made selection. Currently, the population of Sikkimese yak is at risk with about five thousand total headcounts. Characterization is essential for taking appropriate decisions for conservation of any endangered population. In an attempt to phenotypically characterize the Sikkimese yaks, this study recorded phenotypic morphometric traits information, viz., body length (LG), height at withers (HT), heart girth (HG), paunch girth (PG), horn length (HL), horn circumference (HC), distance between horns (DbH), ear length (EL), face length (FL), face width (FW), and tail length with switch (TL), on 2154 yaks of both sexes. Multiple correlation estimation highlighted that HG and PG, DbH and FW, and EL and FW were highly correlated. Using principal component analysis, LG, HT, HG, PG, and HL were found to be the most important traits for phenotypic characterization of Sikkimese yak animals. Discriminant analysis based on different locations of Sikkim hinted at the existence of two separate clusters, however, broadly, phenotypic uniformity could be observed. Subsequent genetic characterization can offer greater insights and can pave the way for future breed registration and conservation of the population.

Surface area change detection of snow/ice cover over Zemu Glacier of Sikkim Himalaya

This study assessed the snow/ice surface area changes over the Zemu Glacier in the Eastern Himalayas. Zemu is considered to be the largest glacier in the Eastern Himalayas located in the Sikkim State of India. Change detection in the snow/ice surface areal extent of the Zemu Glacier was delineated from the year 1945 using US Army Map Service-Topographical Sheets and Landsat imageries available from 1987 to 2020. The results obtained solely focus on surface-change delineation using remote sensing satellite data and GIS software. Landsat imagery of the years 1987, 1997, 2009, 2018, and 2020 was used for snow and ice pixel extraction. Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI), Snow Cover Index (S3), and new band ratio index were used to extract the pure snow and ice pixels, fresh snow, and debris-covered snow/ice area and pixels mixed with shadow to demarcate the surface area changes. Manual delineation was required and undertaken for better results. A slope raster image was generated from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) digital elevation model (DEM) data to delineate the slope and hill shade. The results illustrate that the snow/ice surface covering the glacier had an area of 113.5km2 in the year 1945 which was reduced to 78.31km2 in the year 2020 indicating a total snow/ice surface area loss of 31% in 75years. A loss of 11.45% was observed from 1945 to 1987 in the areal extent, while from 1987 to 2009, a decadal loss of approximately 7% was observed. The surface area loss of 8.46% from 2009 to 2018 led to infer the maximum loss of snow and ice over the glacier body at a rate of 0.94% per year. Between the years 2018 and 2020, the glacier lost 1.08% of its surface area. The Accumulation Area Ratio (AAR) considering the accumulation and ablation areas of the glacier indicated a gradual decline of the accumulation zone in the recent years. Global Land Ice Measurement from Space (GLIMS) program data with RGI version 6.0 was used as a reference to demarcate the areal extent of Zemu Glacier. The study gained above 80% of overall accuracy by generating a confusion matrix in ArcMap. The analysis of this seasonal snow/ice cover showed that there has been a drastic decline in the surface snow/ice cover area over the Zemu Glacier over the years 1987 to 2020 and NDSI; S3 analysis provided improved results to delineate snow/ice cover area over such steep terrain topography of Sikkim Himalaya.

Metataxonomic profiling of bacterial communities and their predictive functional profiles in traditionally preserved meat products of Sikkim state in India

Traditionally preserved meat products are common food items in Sikkim state of India. We studied the high-throughput sequencing of four traditionally preserved meat products viz. beef kargyong, pork kargyong, yak satchu and khyopeh to profile the bacterial communities and also inferred their predictive functional profiles. Overall abundant OTUs in samples showed that Firmicutes was the abundant phylum followed by Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes. Abundant species detected in each product were Psychrobacter pulmonis in beef kargyong, Lactobacillus sakei in pork kargyong, Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus and Ignatzschinera sp. in yak satchu and Lactobacillus sakei and Enterococcus sp. in khyopeh. Several genera unique to each product, based on analysis of shared OTUs contents, were observed among the samples except in khyopeh. Goods coverage recorded to 1.0 was observed, which reflected the maximum bacterial diversity in the samples. Alpha diversity metrics showed a maximum bacterial diversity in khyopeh and lowest in pork kargyong Community dissimilarities in the products were observed by PCoA plot. A total of 133 KEGG predictive functional pathways was observed in beef kargyong, 131 in pork kargyong, 125 in yak satchu and 101 in khyopeh. Metagenome contribution of the OTUs was computed using PICTRUSt2 and visualized by BURRITO software to predict the metabolic pathways. Several predictive functional profiles were contributed by abundant OTUs represented by Enterococcus, Acinetobacter, Agrobacterium, Bdellovibrio, Chryseobacterium, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Psychrobacter, and Staphylococcus.

Telepsychiatry: A Feasible Means to Bridge the Demand-Supply Gaps in Mental Health Services During and After the COVID-19 Pandemic: Preliminary Experiences from Sikkim State of India.

Telepsychiatry: A Feasible Means to Bridge the Demand-Supply Gaps in Mental Health Services During and After the COVID-19 Pandemic: Preliminary Experiences from Sikkim State of India.

Molecular detection and coat protein gene based characterization of Citrus tristeza virus prevalent in Sikkim state of India

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), an important graft transmissible pathogen infecting citrus (Citrus spp.) is prevalent in different citrus growing areas of the country. Sikkim is one of important citrus producing states in the Northeast region of India where Khasi mandarin (C. reticulata) is commercially cultivated. Apart from this, there is limited plantation of Assam lemon (C. limon), Rangpur lime (C. limonia) and Pomelo (C. grandis) in this region. We performed molecular characterization based on coat protein sequence analysis of CTV isolates from Sikkim state of India. Thirty six field samples suspected with Tristeza disease were tested by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using CP specific primers (CN150/CN151). Out of 36, 11 samples were found CTV positive. Eight of the 36 samples showing prominent field symptoms were bio-indexed on Mexican lime (C. aurantifolia) indicator plant for CTV. Five of them showed CTV specific vein clearing and vein flecking symptoms. CTV incidence of 30.55% was recorded in the Sikkim based on combined results of ELISA and PCR. In phylogenetic analysis, all CTV isolates were grouped into eight clades, which represented as a genogroup, Gr-I to Gr-VIII. The Sikkim isolates used in the present study were segregated into two genogroup, namely Gr-I and Gr-VI. Sikkim CTV isolates SK13, SK20, SK18, SK6, SK11, SK14, SK12 and SK19 showed 98–100 per cent nucleotide identity among them and clustered with previously reported Indian isolate K10 and Florida severe isolate T3. Other isolates viz. SK5, SK7 and SK22 shared 97–99% nucleotide identity within themselves and clustered with Indian isolate K5. These results suggest the presence of genetic diversity among CTV isolates and at least two strains of CTV in Sikkim.

Assessment of Domestic Water Use Pattern and Drinking Water Quality of Sikkim, North Eastern Himalaya, India: A Cross-sectional Study

ABSTRACT The present study focused on the pattern of domestic water consumption in Sikkim state of India along with the assessment of the hydro-chemical and hydrobiological characteristics of drinking water quality. The pattern of water consumption and socioeconomic status were acquired through questionnaires and interview of 98 households in three major towns of Sikkim e.g. Gangtok, Ravangla and Pelling. Results showed that the hydro-chemical parameters of drinking water were less than maximum permissible limit as prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Total coliforms, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus spp., Salmonella sp., Staphylococcus spp. and P. aeruginosa were detected in 80.2, 47.5, 49.8, 55.2 and 75 percent of the drinking water samples respectively. However, a careful household survey reveals that about 43% of respondents suffered from water-borne diseases during the monsoon period. For this reason 60% of people prefer boiling or detoxify the water before drinking.

Kitam Bird Sanctuary, the only low elevation protected area of Sikkim: A conservation hotspot for butterflies in the Eastern Himalaya

Abstract The lowland areas of the Himalayan region are subjected to immense anthropogenic pressure because of least representation in the protected area network. Kitam Bird Sanctuary is the only representative protected area that occurs below 1000 m in Sikkim state of India (a part of globally significant biodiversity hotspot of Himalayas) and serves as the refuge for various species of flora and fauna. Here we studied butterfly diversity and community composition in Kitam Bird Sanctuary (a small protected area of 6 km2 geographical area) following point count method spread across predetermined transects. Altogether 1674 butterflies belonging to 111 species and six families were recorded after completion of 240 point counts. Among these, 18 species are federally protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972) of India. Most of the butterflies were forest specialist in terms of habitat preference, whereas based on host plant specificity, the butterfly community was mostly dominated by generalist feeder (Oligophagous II and Polyphagous). Butterfly community parameters showed a strong correlation with habitat variables. While Kitam Bird Sanctuary is primarily designated for conservation of lowland birds, the high diversity of butterflies both in terms of taxonomic richness and trait composition suggests that the sanctuary harbors an ideal habitat for butterflies of the tropical region and invites conservation attention.

Trends in major climatic parameters and sensitivity of evapotranspiration to climatic parameters in the eastern Himalayan region of Sikkim, India

Abstract In this study, temporal trends in daily time series data of key climatic parameters were analyzed using Mann–Kendall and Sen's slope estimator. Sensitivity analysis of each climatic parameter on reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was performed to estimate the sensitivity coefficients and to evaluate the impact of global warming on ETo in the eastern Himalayan region of Sikkim, India. Results of trend analysis showed a significant increasing trend for minimum temperature and mean temperature. Mean relative humidity and sunshine duration showed decreasing trends. Reference evapotranspiration also showed a significant decreasing trend by 0.008 mm year–1 in Sikkim state of India. Sensitivity analysis revealed that the seasonal and annual ETo were most sensitive to maximum temperature followed by sunshine hours whereas wind speed, minimum temperature and relative humidity had a fluctuating effect on mean ETo. The sensitivity coefficient indicated that ETo changes positively with maximum and minimum temperature, sunshine hour, and wind speed, while it changes negatively with relative humidity. Analysis indicated that increase in relative humidity would decrease the ETo in the study area. The findings of this study would be useful for sustainable water resources planning and management of agriculture in hilly regions of the state and for development of adaptation strategies in adverse climatic conditions.

Mucuna laticifera, a new species from north-eastern India

Mucuna laticifera, a new species of Fabaceae from Sikkim state of India is described and illustrated here. It can be distinguished from its closely related species by the presence of a watery latex, uniformly green to pale yellow corolla, glabrous standard and wings and parallel pod margins.

AIR TRAVELERS' PERCEPTION TOWARDS SERVICE QUALITY OF INDIAN DOMESTIC AIRLINES

This study makes an attempt to measure the customer satisfaction level based on service quality as perceived by air travelers among five Indian domestic airlines. Service quality attributes included in the study are Ticket booking experience; Check-in process; Luggage handling; In-flight experience; Cabin crew; Arrival services and Complaint handling approach of domestic airlines operating in India. A questionnaire was designed with above set of attributes and responses of 120 travelers of five domestic airlines viz., Go Air, Jet Airways, Indigo, Spice Jet and Air India (Domestic) were recorded on a five point Likert scale. About 120 respondents were interviewed from different tourist destinations in the four districts of Sikkim state of India. A convenient sampling method was followed. Perceptions of only those travelers were captured who had actually undergone the experience of travelling by at least two domestic airlines. Using Kruskal-Wallis test, it was checked whether travelers perceive any significant difference between satisfaction levels among five airlines for each of the above sevem identified attributes. The domestic airline preferences of customers with respect to each of the service quality attribute were also traced during the study. It was observed that Spice Jet has scored highest preference on 'ticket booking', 'in-flight experience' and 'cabin crew' service attributes; whereas the perception of travelers towards 'check-in process', 'luggage handling', 'arrival services' and 'complaint handling' attributes of Jet Airways, was significantly different from the others. Indian customers also see the quality of services in connection with the value to money.

Farmers perception and awareness of climate change: a case study from Kanchandzonga Biosphere Reserve, India

This study was an attempt to document the indigenous Lepcha people’s perception on climate change-related issues in five villages of Dzongu Valley located in Kanchandzonga Biosphere Reserve, India. Personal structured questionnaire was used for interview of 300 households selected randomly. Results showed that 85 % of the households have perceived climate change, mainly in the form of increasing temperature and unpredictable pattern of rainfall. In terms of climate change-related events, 75 % of the households believed that wind is becoming warmer and stronger over the past years. Majority of the households have observed changes in crop phenology, while about 90 % agreed that the incidences of insect pest and diseases have increased over the years, especially in their large cardamom crop. A comparison of community perceptions, climatic observations and scientific literature shows that the community have correctly perceived temperature change, unpredictable occurrence of rainfall and increased incidence of insect pest and diseases, which have largely influenced the experiences and perceptions regarding climate-related events. Results reveal that households have adopted the use of locally available material as mulches against soil erosion, to conserve the soil moisture and manage soil temperature. Majority of the households have diversified their cropping system through traditional agroforestry systems and intercropping. Unfortunately, most of the households were unaware about the scientific sustainable approaches to combating impact of climate change. This documentation will aid in assessing the needs in terms of actions and information for facilitating climate change-related adaptation locally in Sikkim state of India.

Informants consensus and knowledge on the use of wild edible fruits from Sikkim, India

Consensus and perception of local ethnic inhabitants from different parts of Sikkim state of India regarding the role of wild edible fruits in their daily life style was studied. Perception level was analyzed on the basis of family dependency, income generating ability, medicinal values and intercropping with agricultural crops. Results revealed that 61.6% of the respondents were with a medium perception level followed by high perception level (31.6%) about the values and usage of indigenous minor or wild edible fruit trees. Distribution of data was highly consistent (15.20%) with mean and SD value of 10.92 and 1.66, respectively. Thus, the variables gender, age and occupation of respondents were found to be critical for developing their perception level on values and usage of these fruit trees. The estimated R2 value of 0.099 indicated that predictor variables altogether had explained 9.9% variations embedded with predicted variable i.e. local people's perception on values and usage of fruit trees

Glacial lake outburst flood risk assessment using combined approaches of remote sensing, GIS and dam break modelling

A great number of glacial lakes have appeared in many mountain regions across the world during the last half-century due to receding of glaciers and global warming. In the present study, glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) risk assessment has been carried out in the Teesta river basin located in the Sikkim state of India. First, the study focuses on accurate mapping of the glaciers and glacial lakes using multispectral satellite images of Landsat and Indian Remote Sensing satellites. For glacier mapping, normalized difference snow index (NDSI) image and slope map of the area have been utilized. NDSI approach can identify glaciers covered with clean snow but debris-covered glaciers cannot be mapped using NDSI method alone. For the present study, slope map has been utilized along with the NDSI approach to delineate glaciers manually. Glacial lakes have been mapped by supervised maximum likelihood classification and normalized difference water index followed by manual editing afterwards using Google Earth images. Second, the first proper inventory of glacial lakes for Teesta basin has been compiled containing information of 143 glacial lakes. Third, analysis of these lakes has been carried out for identification of potentially dangerous lakes. Vulnerable lakes have been identified on the basis of parameters like surface area, position with respect to parent glacier, growth since 2009, slope, distance from the outlet of the basin, presence of supraglacial lakes, presence of other lakes in downstream, condition of moraine, condition of the terrain around them, etc. From these criterions, in total, 18 lakes have been identified as potentially dangerous glacial lakes. Out of these 18 lakes, further analysis has been carried out for the identification of the most vulnerable lake. Lake 140 comes out to be the most vulnerable for a GLOF event. Lastly, for this potentially dangerous lake, different dam break parameters have been generated using satellite data and digital elevation model. The volume and depth have been computed using empirical formulae, and other parameters such as cross-sections from the lake to outlet etc. have been prepared in ArcGIS 9.3. The GLOF which can be triggered by Lake 140 was modelled and simulated using MIKE-11 software's hydrodynamic module. As a result, flood values and hydrograph have been obtained. The flood at lake site comes out to be 2611.136 cumec which get mitigated to 1417.844 cumec at the outlet.

Ethics in disaster management

<p>In any profession, a basic set of moral values needs to be followed to comply with what we call ethics. Geoscientists have significant roles to play, more particularly in the field of geohazards, to appraise society about the possibilities of natural hazards such as landslides, avalanches, floods, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Geoscientists cannot only assess these hazards, but they can also estimate the potential consequences if these hazards occur in a given place and at a given time. However, sometimes it has been found that the credibility of geoscientists among society and government is lost, due to some unethical practices for short-term gain, or due to incorrect understanding of geological phenomena. Some of the hazards that cannot be predicted with the existing capabilities have been forecast by some pseudo-geoscientists, to draw social/ media attention, thereby bringing the reputation of the profession into disrepute. There is the need to be fair enough to accept the limitations of our profession in providing information about natural hazards that are not yet fully understood by the professionals themselves. More specifically, the predictions related to earthquakes have drawn the attention of society as well as media in the developing countries where the ‘common’ people have different perceptions. Most often, popular myths take over scientific facts among the public, and this can lead to rumors about natural hazards. This article will mention some cases of rumors about natural disasters, and particularly earthquakes, and the response of society, media and government. It emphasizes the role of geoscientists as the ethical responsibility to inform the public about the actual situations and the geohazards, to avoid panic caused by rumors from non-specialists or hyperactive pseudo experts. This article indicates the recent rumors about a lake outburst, flash floods, and volcanic activities after a moderate earthquake (M 6.9, September 18, 2011) in the Sikkim State of India, and considers the actions taken by the geoscientific community to correctly inform people about the real situation.</p>

Amomum subulatum Roxb: Traditional, phytochemical and biological activities-An overview

Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Large Cardamom) is a perennial herbaceous crop, cultivated in swampy places across hills around water streams. It has been a well known spice since time immemorial; used as flavouring agent to various dishes indigenous to the Eastern Himalayan region particularly Nepal, Bhutan, and India. Sikkim State of India is the largest producer of cardamom that is around 50% of the world’s production. Large cardamom contains 8.6% moisture, 5% total ash value, 1.5% ash insoluble in acid, 3.5% water soluble ash value, 4.88% alcohol extract, 4% non-volatile ether extract and 91.4% of total solid. It contains 1.95 to 3.32% of essential oil having characteristic aroma and possesses medicinal properties. It is reported as an official drug in Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia due to its curative as well as preventive properties for various ailments. The major constituent of large cardamom essential oil is 1,8-cineole. The monoterpene hydrocarbon content is in the range of 5 to 17% of which lamonene, sabeinene, and pinenes are significant components. The terpinols comprise approximately 5 to 7% of the oil. Due to the presence of these compounds, it has pharmacognostic properties such as analgesic, antimicrobial, cardiac stimulant, carminative, diuretic, stomachic etc. This paper recapitulates traditional, phytochemical and biological activities of A. subulatum. Key words: Amomum subulatum, ethno-medico-botany, physicochemical, phytochemical, biological properties.

Characterisation of Phytophthora colocasiae isolates associated with leaf blight of taro in India

Leaf blight and corm rot caused by Phytophthora colocasiae are the most devastating diseases of taro. Fourteen P. colocasiae isolates collected from different states of India were characterised for mating type, metalaxyl fungicide sensitivity and aggressiveness on taro. These organisms were identified as P. colocasiae based on morphological characteristics, internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence homology and pathogenicity to taro plants. Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) ITS regions of P. colocasiae isolates were examined, and compared with additional Phytophthora species. All isolates of P. colocasiae fell within a single cluster in phylogenetic trees, regardless of their geographic origins. These isolates were more closely related to Phytophthora capsici. All isolates except the isolate collected from Sikkim state of India (98–111) were sensitive to metalaxyl at 100 ppm and it was also scored for causing higher average foliar disease and tuber rot ratings. Isolates tested exhibited four growth patterns in cultures: cottony, rosaceous, petaloid and stellate. P.colocasiae isolates, including an IISR isolate (PC-73), with cottony growth pattern did not grow at 36°C. The mean oospore diameter of A1 mating type isolates was greater than that of A2 mating type isolates. Six of 14 isolates tested produced chlamydospores in V8-CaCO3 liquid medium.

Ecology, Economics, and Equity of the Pastoral Systems in the Khangchendzonga National Park, Sikkim Himalaya, India

The Khangchendzonga National Park is a part of the eastern Himalaya global biodiversity hotspot and is located in the Sikkim state of India. Increasing livestock populations coupled with the government policy to ban grazing and its selective implementation resulted in conflict. Hence we undertook this multidisciplinary study involving consultations with traditional resource users, field surveys, and remote sensing. We found that in the greater Himalayan part, over the past 6 decades sheep have been increasingly replaced by yaks (and their crossbreeds), who descend only up to the multilayered temperate and subalpine forests during winter. These forests have been extensively manipulated by the yak herders to increase the fodder availability. In terms of economics and equity in benefit sharing, we found that a few yak herders earn high incomes by maintaining large herds while the sheep and pack animal herders earn subsistence level incomes from small herds. We propose a reduction in yak (and their female crossbreed) numbers with adequate alternative livelihood support for the herders.

Probabilistic Techniques, GIS and Remote Sensing in Landslide Hazard Mitigation: A Case Study from Sikkim Himalayas, India

Landslides form one of the most devastating natural hazards in the Sikkim State of India. This natural hazard alone causes severe damage to properties and human lives. The identified conditioning factors include adverse rock types (mica schist, phyllite, granite gneiss and calc schist), multiple joint sets, active tectonism, and very high annual precipitation (3539 mm). The triggering factors are mainly rapid pore pressure built up, seismic activity and anthropogenic interference. This paper evaluates the landslide hazard zones using information theory (I) and regression analysis (R) in GIS environment. In all, 14 variables are identified as conditioning and triggering factors and accordingly probabilistic prediction maps are prepared individually by both the methods. The results thus generated are compared and classified into three slope instability zones viz. low (−0.143 < Ij < 0.02 & 0.38 < Rj < 0.55), medium (−0.02 < Ij < 0.103 & 0.55 < Rj < 0.73) and high ( Ij > 0.13 & Rj > 0.73) on the basis of histogram distribution. Further, these probabilistic prediction maps are compared with the actual landslide map generated from recent satellite data (January 2002) for the accuracy of prediction. The generated hazard maps agree with the observed landslide incidences. Thus, the proposed methodology can be utilized effectively in landslide hazard zonation studies.