Significant Environmental Harm Research Articles

Environmental Impacts of the Deep-Water Oil and Gas Industry: A Review to Guide Management Strategies

The industrialization of the deep sea is expanding worldwide. Expanding oil and gas exploration activities in the absence of sufficient baseline data in these ecosystems has made environmental management challenging. Here, we review the types of activities that are associated with global offshore oil and gas development in water depths over 200 m, the typical impacts of these activities, some of the more extreme impacts of accidental oil and gas releases, and the current state of management in the major regions of offshore industrial activity including 18 exclusive economic zones. Direct impacts of infrastructure installation, including sediment resuspension and burial by seafloor anchors and pipelines, are typically restricted to a radius of approximately 100 m on from the installation on the seafloor. Discharges of water-based and low-toxicity oil-based drilling muds and produced water can extend over 2 km, while the ecological impacts at the population and community levels on the seafloor are most commonly on the order of 200-300 m from their source. These impacts may persist in the deep sea for many years and likely longer for its more fragile ecosystems, such as cold-water corals. This synthesis of information provides the basis for a series of recommendations for the management of offshore oil and gas development. An effective management strategy, aimed at minimizing risk of significant environmental harm, will typically encompass regulations of the activity itself (e.g. discharge practices, materials used), combined with spatial (e.g. avoidance rules and marine protected areas) and temporal measures (e.g. restricted activities during peak reproductive periods). Spatial management measures that encompass representatives of all of the regional deep-sea community types is important in this context. Implementation of these management strategies should consider minimum buffer zones to displace industrial activity beyond the range of typical impacts: at least 2 km from any discharge points and surface infrastructure and 200 m from seafloor infrastructure with no expected discharges. Although managing natural resources is, arguably, more challenging in deep-water environments, inclusion of these proven conservation tools contributes to robust environmental management strategies for oil and gas extraction in the deep sea.

The dynamics of sediment-associated contaminants over a transition from drought to multiple flood events in a lowland UK catchment

Fine sediment in suspended form, recently deposited overbank and in temporary storage on or in channel beds, was collected in the Nene basin during a period of drought through to a period of four high flows. The sediment was analysed for arsenic, copper, lead, phosphorus and zinc concentrations with the aim of investigating their sources, movement, temporary storage and potential for environmental harm. Copper, lead and zinc probably originated from urban street dusts, phosphorus (originally in dissolved form) from sewage effluent and arsenic from natural soils developed over ironstone. There was little difference in the metal or arsenic concentrations in the sediment under different flow conditions; instead, proximity to pollutant sources appeared to control their concentrations. Phosphorus in tributary sub-catchments probably adsorbed to sediment during periods of low flow but these sediments were flushed away during high flows and replaced by sediment with lower concentrations. However, concentrations of all pollutants in overbank sediments along the Nene's main channel were not reduced in successive flood events, suggesting no first flush effect. Only phosphorus accumulated on sediment at concentrations exceeding those of its catchment-based sources (e.g. street dusts, channel banks and catchment soils). This scavenging of aqueous phosphate by sediment explained the difference in behaviour between phosphorus, arsenic and heavy metals. The surface area and organic matter content were shown to have a small effect on contaminant concentrations. Street dust contaminants only exceeded predicted effect levels in close proximity to urban areas, suggesting a small potential for harm to the aquatic environment. Arsenic concentrations exceeded predicted effect levels in most sediment samples. However, it has been shown to be largely non-bioavailable in previously published research on the Nene, limiting its potential for significant environmental harm. Phosphorus concentrations in river sediments are high in comparison to the soils in the catchment and in comparison with sediment–P concentrations in other published lowland catchment studies, indicating a large potential for eutrophication should the Phosphorus be, or become, bioavailable.

Protecting the Silent Victim from Irregular Actors: Improving Non-State Compliance with the International Law of Environmental Protection in Armed Conflict

This paper was written as an honours thesis at the ANU College of Law, under the supervision of Associate Professor Don Anton.International Humanitarian Law has often been lacking, particularly in relation to environmental protection, and in its ability to regulate armed non-state actors (ANSAs). As a result, significant environmental harm has occurred throughout modern conflicts which increasingly involve actors who cannot be easily regulated under formal law. This paper explores the limitations of the current legal regime, both formally and in its ability to practically protect the environment from the acts of ANSA’s in armed conflict. It goes on to consider the ways in which this system might be improved; through greater clarification and codification of existing law, increased informal mechanisms and institutional support for engagement with and monitoring of ANSA compliance with this law, and development of criminal liability for environmental war crimes. An holistic approach to implementation of these factors would allow greater opportunity for the protection of the environment in armed conflict and for sustainable post-conflict recovery.

Air as the renewable carbon source of the future: an overview of CO2 capture from the atmosphere

The burning of our diminishing fossil fuel reserves is accompanied by a large anthropogenic CO2 release, which is outpacing nature's CO2 recycling capability, causing significant environmental harm. Much is being done to avert this crisis including more efficient technology for usage, savings and replacing carbon fuels with alternatives whenever feasible. The capture of CO2 followed by sequestration (CCS) into geologic formation or under the seas has also been proposed and in some cases implemented. Carbon capture and recycling (CCR) to fuels and materials is another promising approach. At first, capturing carbon dioxide from concentrated sources such as fossil fuel burning power plants, industrial plants and natural sources might be the most practical. However, the capture of CO2 from the atmosphere is also technically feasible despite its low concentration (∼390 ppm) and presents even some benefits compared to point source CO2 capture. The present article reviews methods developed for the capture of CO2 directly from the air as well as their advantages and drawbacks. While strong bases such as sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide could be used, their regeneration is energy intensive, requiring high temperatures. Amines either physically or chemically immobilized on solid supports require much lower temperatures for their regeneration and are therefore promising candidates.

Anthropogenic Chemical Carbon Cycle for a Sustainable Future

Nature's photosynthesis uses the sun's energy with chlorophyll in plants as a catalyst to recycle carbon dioxide and water into new plant life. Only given sufficient geological time, millions of years, can new fossil fuels be formed naturally. The burning of our diminishing fossil fuel reserves is accompanied by large anthropogenic CO(2) release, which is outpacing nature's CO(2) recycling capability, causing significant environmental harm. To supplement the natural carbon cycle, we have proposed and developed a feasible anthropogenic chemical recycling of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is captured by absorption technologies from any natural or industrial source, from human activities, or even from the air itself. It can then be converted by feasible chemical transformations into fuels such as methanol, dimethyl ether, and varied products including synthetic hydrocarbons and even proteins for animal feed, thus supplementing our food chain. This concept of broad scope and framework is the basis of what we call the Methanol Economy. The needed renewable starting materials, water and CO(2), are available anywhere on Earth. The required energy for the synthetic carbon cycle can come from any alternative energy source such as solar, wind, geothermal, and even hopefully safe nuclear energy. The anthropogenic carbon dioxide cycle offers a way of assuring a sustainable future for humankind when fossil fuels become scarce. While biosources can play a limited role in supplementing future energy needs, they increasingly interfere with the essentials of the food chain. We have previously reviewed aspects of the chemical recycling of carbon dioxide to methanol and dimethyl ether. In the present Perspective, we extend the discussion of the innovative and feasible anthropogenic carbon cycle, which can be the basis of progressively liberating humankind from its dependence on diminishing fossil fuel reserves while also controlling harmful CO(2) emissions to the atmosphere. We also discuss in more detail the essential stages and the significant aspects of carbon capture and subsequent recycling. Our ability to develop a feasible anthropogenic chemical carbon cycle supplementing nature's photosynthesis also offers a new solution to one of the major challenges facing humankind.

Case Concerning Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay) (Judgment) [2010

The Pulp Mills case is the latest in a series of environmental cases to find its way before the ICJ. Pulp Mills contributes to the development of international environmental law by confirming that that transboundary environmental impact assessment is part and parcel of general international law. It is true that deficiencies remain in connection with the nature, scope and content of the EIA (including public consultation). However, states planning projects that pose risks of significant transboundary environmental harm (or threaten shared natural resources) shoulder a significant obligation of due diligence to ensure the environment or resources are protected from harm.

New molecular markers to genetically differentiate populations of Didemnum vexillum (Kott, 2002) - an invasive ascidian species

Invasive ascidians can be a menace to both ecosystems and marine aquaculture in the coastal United States. One of the very recent introductions of an ascidian species in Puget Sound, a large inland waterway in the Northwest of the United States, appears to be the same species, Didemnum vexillum (Kott, 2002) that has caused significant economic and environmental harm in New England, California, British Columbia, northern Europe, and New Zealand. In light of such grave threats, identifying the vectors and sources of introduced organisms in order to prevent and possibly combat invasions is crucial. Distinguishing between primary introduction (source population from native range) and secondary introduction (source population from a previously colonized site) is fundamental to identifying pathways of introduction. We have developed three molecular markers that can be used to address these source questions as well as other basic questions of molecular evolution in D. vexillum. Two of these markers (Dnr1 and DL2.1A1) are polymorphic sequence regions which we found to each have four alleles. A third marker is a microsatellite locus, D6, which we observed has ten alleles. Including all samples characterized with these three markers, the proportion of heterozygotes for each marker was 0.682, 0.721, and 0.773 for Dnr1, DL2.1A1, and D6 respectively. Using these markers, we show significant genetic differentiation between population samples from New Hampshire and Puget Sound (FST= 0.226, p<0.05). These markers will thus be helpful in genetically characterizing worldwide populations of D. vexillum and providing a means to reconstruct pathways of introduction by determining the genetic relationships of these populations. In addition, we report the discovery of multiple genotypes at microsatellite locus D6 found in DNA samples derived from larvae within single colonies of D. vexillum. This marker may prove useful in gaining insight into multiple paternity in D. vexillum, which is a topic rarely studied in ascidians.

Application of the ‘Precautionary Principle’ in the 2000 Biosafety Protocol to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity

IntroductionThe development of genetic manipulation in recent years has caused both angst and excitement. The technology has the potential to solve world hunger and create cures for many of humanities ailments. However many have also expressed concern that our understanding of the potential of the technology to cause significant environmental harm is limited. The possibility that this harm could extend beyond national boundaries has led to the technology being discussed in the international environmental law arena. The

Irrigation application efficiency and deep drainage potential under surface irrigated cotton

Furrow irrigation events conducted under usual farmer management were analysed to determine the irrigation application efficiencies being attained, and the magnitude of the irrigation contribution to deep drainage under surface irrigated cotton in Queensland. Application efficiencies were shown to vary widely from 17 to 100% and on average were a low 48%. Losses to deep drainage were substantial, averaging 42.5 mm per irrigation. This has the potential for significant environmental harm and also represents an annual loss of up to 2500 m 3/ha (2.5 Ml/ha) of water that could be beneficially used to grow more cotton. Simulations of each event using the simulation model SIRMOD illustrated simple ‘recipe’ strategies that would lead to gains in efficiency and reductions in the deep drainage losses. Additional simulations of selected events showed that further significant improvements in performance can be achieved by the application of more advanced irrigation management practices, involving in-field evaluation and optimisation of the flow rate and irrigation time to suit the individual soil conditions and furrow characteristics. Application efficiencies in the range 85–95% are achievable in all but the most adverse conditions. The dependency between deep drainage and irrigation management was demonstrated, confirming that substantial reductions in deep drainage are possible by ensuring that irrigation applications do not exceed the soil moisture deficit.

Soil nitrifying enrichments as biofilter starters in intensive recirculating saline water aquaculture

Intensive recirculating aquaculture relies on biofilters to sustain satisfactory water quality in the ponds. Establishment of new biofilters in aquaculture ponds without a start-up culture requires a long period of time and may therefore cause significant losses and environmental harm due to discharge of nitrogen-rich effluents. A laboratory scale setup (7-l aquaria with shrimp and fish) demonstrated that an external start-up nitrifying enrichment culture performed similarly to the natural bacterial population of an established pond biofilter, and superior to the performance of similar biofilters without a start-up culture (control). Ammonia concentration in the control treatment increased daily and reached 18 mg l −1 during a 14-day experiment, whereas in the treated aquaria, it averaged less than 2 mg l −1 . Fish growth and survival were similar in the treated aquaria (average growth of 0.45 g/14 days, and 95% survival) and significantly higher than in the control (average growth of 0.0 g/14 days, and 80% survival). The source for the enrichment cultures was soil samples collected from the region where the farm is situated. This approach may lead to the development of bacterial amendments (probiotic products) that can be used as start-up cultures for new operations or damaged filters, and potentially enhance nitrification in established filters. As the cultures are collected from soils, it is unlikely that they will be contaminated with fish disease-causing agents. This will improve water quality and consequently aquatic animal production.

The Aquatic Environment and Textile Mill Effluents — An Ecological Risk Assessment

Textile mill effluents (TMEs) are wastewater discharges from textile mills that are involved in wet processes such as scouring, neutralizing, desizing, mercerizing, carbonizing, fulling, bleaching, dyeing, printing and other wet finishing activities. TMEs are complex mixtures containing a wide variety of chemicals which have a range of pH, temperature, colour and oxygen demand characteristics. Most wet processing mills in Canada discharge to municipal wastewater collection systems where those effluents receive some form of wastewater treatment. This paper reports the results of a tiered assessment approach that was used to determine the impacts on the aquatic environment of whole effluents discharged by wet processing textile mills in Canada. A conservative assessment indicated that no substantial threat to the aquatic environment was associated with TMEs receiving secondary or tertiary treatment, on- site or at a municipal wastewater treatment plant, prior to discharge to receiving waters. In the case of TMEs receiving only primary treatment or no treatment prior to discharge, a weight-of-evidence risk assessment supported the conclusion that those effluents could produce significant environmental harm in aquatic environments.