Significant Cross-cultural Differences Research Articles

Similarity of Mothers’ and Preschool Teachers’ Evaluations of Socialization Goals in a Cross-Cultural Perspective

This study examines the similarity of socialization goals of a group of mothers with different cultural backgrounds and their children’s respective preschool teachers in Germany. Additionally, the researchers were interested in the relationship between the degree of mother-teacher similarity and maternal satisfaction with child care. Questionnaire data of nonmigrant (n = 464), Turkish migrant (n = 83), and Former Soviet Union (FSU) migrant (n = 112) mothers and their respective preschool teachers (n = 244) were analyzed. Significant cross-cultural differences between mothers and teachers were evident in the lower correlation of socialization goal evaluations between migrant mothers and teachers, and higher absolute difference scores for migrant mothers. However, maternal satisfaction with institutional child care was not related to similarity of socialization goals and was generally high across all groups. Results point to the importance of cross-cultural differences in child-rearing ideas in terms of the interaction between parents and child care professionals.

Intensifiers in Persian Discourse: Apology and Compliment Speech Acts in Focus

Speech carries, in addition to its propositional meaning, the functional intentions of the speaker (illocution). Persian language is governed by norms the realization of which makes significant cross-cultural differences. This study is an attempt to investigate the proportion by which intensifiers are used in the two speech acts of apology and compliment. More specifically, it tries to investigate how using intensifiers ensures the desirable level of appropriateness for Persian speakers and, generally speaking, why they are used in that proportion. Moreover, it tries to find out whether gender tends to affect the differential degrees of use of intensifiers. To this end, Persian apologetic and compliment utterances were collected through interview as well as eliciting Discourse Completion Test (DCT) data. The findings of the analysis reveal that Persian speakers use intensifiers extensively in both apology and compliment speech acts. Significant differences are also observed in the type, frequency, and illocutionary effect of using intensifiers in apology and compliment speech acts. The interview data show that Persian participants believe they are concerned about the illocutionary effect of their speech acts in order to make sure that face has been sufficiently served in apology. In compliments, intensifiers are used in a typical sense to show the illocutionary force of the speaker's act. Intensifiers are also used differently across genders: female speakers show greater tendency to use intensifiers than male speakers.

Introduction: A global perspective on unwanted intrusive thoughts

Because of Rachman and de Silva׳s (1978) influential research on normal and abnormal obsessions, it is now a basic tenet of cognitive behavioral theories (CBT) that clinical obsessions have their origins in the normal intrusive thought phenomena that characterizes the stream of consciousness. However much of the empirical research on unwanted intrusive thoughts has utilized retrospective self-report questionnaires that have weak construct validity and the samples have been drawn primarily from Western European and North American populations. To enhance the measurement precision and investigate the universality of unwanted intrusions, a structured intrusive thoughts interview was developed and administered to 777 nonclinical individuals drawn from 13 countries. The three papers in this special issue present findings based on this large data set. Together it was found that unwanted intrusive thoughts are reported by the majority of individuals in all countries, that significant cross-cultural differences are apparent in primary intrusive thought content, that faulty appraisals and confrontational control strategies are related to the distress of intrusions, and that the frequency of dirt/contamination, doubt, and miscellaneous intrusions are specifically related to obsessive compulsive symptom distress. The authors discuss these findings in terms of their consistency with predictions derived from the CBT perspective on obsessions. The special issue concludes with a discussion paper by Professor Jack Rachman, originator of the obessional intrusions concept.

Is Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder but Ugliness Culturally Universal? Facial Preferences of Polish and Yali (Papua) People

Previous studies suggest that human facial attractiveness is culturally universal. As they were conducted among Western populations and populations strongly influenced by the Western culture, it is not obvious if the preferences would also be the same in populations isolated from this culture. It is also not certain if the agreement would be the same in the case of attractive and unattractive faces. In the presented study participated 103 people from the Yali tribe (Papua, Indonesia) and 99 Poles. Their task was to choose the most attractive and unattractive face of the opposite sex from a set of 4 pictures (one attractive, one unattractive and two average faces of Polish people chosen in a pre-test). We showed significant cross-cultural differences in attractiveness preferences and similarities in choices of unattractive faces. We speculate that across cultures unattractiveness could be assessed on the basis of the same cues to health and biological quality. Attractiveness criteria seem to be more complex, specific to each population, and dependent on the population's ecological conditions and morphological characteristics.

Cross-cultural differences in the sleep of preschool children

BackgroundThe aim of our study was to characterize cross-cultural sleep patterns and sleep problems in a large sample of preschool children ages 3–6years in multiple predominantly Asian (P-A) and predominantly Caucasian (P-C) countries/regions. MethodsParents of 2590 preschool-aged children (P-A countries/regions: China, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand; P-C countries: Australia-New Zealand, Canada, United Kingdom, United States) completed an Internet-based expanded version of the Brief Child Sleep Questionnaire (BCSQ). ResultsOverall, children from P-A countries had significantly later bedtimes, shorter nighttime sleep, and increased parental perception of sleep problems compared with those from P-C countries. Bedtimes varied from as early as 7:43pm in Australia and New Zealand to as late as 10:26pm in India, a span of almost 3h. There also were significant differences in daytime sleep with the majority of children in P-A countries continuing to nap, resulting in no differences in 24-h total sleep times (TST) across culture and minimal differences across specific countries. Bed sharing and room sharing are common in P-A countries, with no change across the preschool years. There also were a significant percentage of parents who perceived that their child had a sleep problem (15% in Korea to 44% in China). ConclusionsOverall, our results indicate significant cross-cultural differences in sleep patterns, sleeping arrangements, and parent-reported sleep problems in preschool-aged children. Further studies are needed to understand the underlying bases for these differences and especially for contributors to parents’ perceptions of sleep problems.

The Construction of Masculinity: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Men’s Lifestyle Magazine Advertisements

The increasing global popularity of men’s lifestyle magazines offers a unique opportunity to study how advertising constructs masculinity across cultures. This study conducted a content analysis of 636 ads from the three most popular men’s lifestyle magazines in Taiwan, China, and the United States to examine the representations of masculinity in their advertisements between 2008 and 2010. The objectives were to determine how masculinities are currently portrayed in terms of types and roles. The study found that the magazines from all three countries typically portrayed men as refined and sophisticated. The defining characteristic of global hegemonic masculinity is commodity consumption, with a particular emphasis on a trendy and refined appearance. We found no significant cross-cultural differences in the types of masculinity, namely, “Vigorous and Macho”, “Refined and Sophisticated”, and “Trendy and Cool”. The traditional preference for “Refined and Sophisticated” in Chinese and Taiwanese ads and a preference for “Vigorous and Macho” in the U.S. ads have largely disappeared. Instead, the global consumption market and its associated consumer culture are the primary determinants regarding representations of masculinity in men’s lifestyle magazine ads. This global culture may underlie the lack of differences found.

Attachment styles and PTSD in adolescents in three Nordic Countries

Studies of possible variables influencing development of posttraumatic stress (PTSD) are of great importance in the effort to enhance preventive and interventional methods in the aim to prevail this devastating condition. Despite the vast research in adults, little is still known of adolescents. Although research is scarce, attachment style has been identified to be an influencing factor in adults, and still research in adolescent is almost non-existent. To our knowledge, no prior study has been conducted, looking at the relationship between attachment style, exposure to a broad range of potentially traumatic events, and subsequent PTSD symptoms in a cross cultural perspective. This is the aim of the present study. Procedure: Data was collected from questionnaire surveys of 1283 adolescents (mean age 14.1 years). Measures: PTSD was measured with The Harvard Trauma Questionnaire-Part IV (HTQ); and attachment style was studied using the Revised Adult Attachment Scale (RAAS). Potentially traumatic events were examined using a broad event list of 19 events. Results: Contrary to what was expected, significant cross cultural differences were found in the distribution of securely, preoccupied, and dismissive attached. Around half of the Faroese population was securely attached, contrary to the Danish and Icelandic population, where the majority was dismissive attached. Cross cultural differences were also found in the distribution of attachment style among those adolescents with PTSD. The majority of the Danish adolescent population with PTSD was dismissive attached; the majority of the Faroese adolescent population with PTSD was securely attached, and in the Icelandic adolescents with PTSD were distributed somewhat even between the four attachment styles. Finally, cross cultural differences were identified in which potentially traumatic events had a significant contribution to the variation in PTSD. The results are discussed and clinical recommendations are presented.

Compliments and Refusals in Poland and England

There are significant cross-cultural differences in the way compliments and refusals are made and responded to. The investigation of these speech acts touches on some interesting issues for pragmatic theory: the relation between the universal and the culture-specific features of complimenting and refusing, the importance of culture specific strategies in explaining how these speech acts are produced and responded to, as well as the relation between the message conveyed by a compliment or refusal and its affective/emotional effects on the hearer. The pilot study presented in this paper investigates the production and reception of compliments and refusals in the relatively proximate cultures of England and Poland. The findings reveal significant systematic cross-cultural differences relating to refusals, while the differences relating to compliments are fewer and more subtle. The data suggests that the cross-cultural similarities and differences observed can be explained in terms of (a) a universalist view of institutional speech acts and face concerns in rapport management, (b) the Relevance-theoretic view of communication and cognition as oriented towards maximising informativeness and (c) some culture-specific values. These tentative conclusions are based on very limited data and indicate useful directions for future research.

An Evaluation of Equivalence in Body Dissatisfaction Measurement Across Cultures

We evaluated gender-based and cross-cultural equivalence of the Body Dissatisfaction Scale of the Body Change Inventory in a sample of 4,005 adolescents from 7 cultures that represent diverse body image ideals and response styles. Results of multigroup confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated equivalence of the scale across gender but not across cultures. Follow-up analyses identified small but significant cross-cultural differences in response styles (specifically, acquiescence and middle response option endorsement) as the source of this noninvariance. We recommend use of this scale for gender-based comparisons but caution that researchers should evaluate the presence of response biases before making substantive conclusions about cross-cultural differences in body dissatisfaction.

Describing product experience in different languages: The role of sensory modalities

People describe their product experiences using adjectives that can be divided into three groups: sensory descriptors (e.g., hard, red, noisy); symbolic descriptors (e.g., interesting, expensive, modern); and affective descriptors (e.g., pleasant, beautiful). All product experiences rely on information from sensory modalities. We developed a questionnaire approach to quantify the relative importance of the five sensory modalities for various descriptors of product experience. The approach was used in two studies that employed Dutch and Russian participants. The results demonstrate that the importance of a sensory modality differs for various groups of descriptors. Most symbolic descriptors demonstrated strong visual dominance. Affective descriptors were equally related to all sensory modalities. Sensory descriptors showed significant cross-cultural differences. The latter result can be explained by the different associations between literal and metaphorical meanings of sensory adjectives in different languages.

The influence of skin tone, body weight, and hair colour on perceptions of women's attractiveness and health: A cross-cultural investigation

This study investigated the role of skin tone, hair colour, and body weight in perceptions of women's physical attractiveness and health. Four-hundred and thirty-six women and 423 men in eight distinct national settings on three continents rated a series of 18 female line drawings that varied in three levels of skin tone, two levels of hair colour, and three levels of body weight. Results showed significant cross-cultural differences in what was considered attractive and healthy, as a function of the three manipulated physical characteristics. However, the role played by, and the importance of, the three characteristics appeared to differ relative to the type of rating being made. Specifically, ratings of health were not congruent with ratings of physical attractiveness. There were also a number of interactions between the different variables, which were most pronounced with participants’ nationality. Interactions between the different stimulus variables themselves were small, but nevertheless suggest combined effects. These results support recent arguments for contextualising interpersonal perceptions, rather than viewing them in isolation of sociocultural environments.

Psychometric Evaluation of the Tagalog and German Subjective Happiness Scales and a Cross-Cultural Comparison

The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) has recently been developed as a more complete measure for the assessment of molar subjective happiness. In the present study, we report on the translation and validation of German and Tagalog versions of the SHS and conduct an initial cross-cultural examination of subjective happiness. In Study 1, 960 participants in Austria completed a German version of the SHS, which showed a unidimensional structure, good internal consistency, and good convergent validity with other measures of subjective well-being. In Study 2, 182 participants in the Philippines completed a Tagalog version of the scale, which likewise had a unidimensional structure, high internal consistency, and good convergent validity. Finally, the results of Study 3 indicate that there were significant cross-cultural differences in subjective happiness. Specifically, participants in individualist Austria and Britain had higher SHS scores than their counterparts in collectivist Malaysia and the Philippines. Limitations of these studies are discussed.

Foreign policy and the framing of the 2003 Iraq War in elite Swedish and US newspapers

This study investigated the framing of the Iraq War in the elite newspapers in Sweden and the USA during the official war period, 20 March—1 May 2003. The content analysis revealed significant cross-cultural differences in the framing of the war in terms of tone, frames and use of sources. The differences in framing were consistent with the characteristics of the national political environment and foreign policy stances in each country.

Corporate Social Responsibility in Mexico and France

Scholarship on corporate social responsibility (CSR) shows both that the concept itself is interpreted in a multitude of different ways and that significant cross-cultural differences exist in the way that business approaches the question of social responsibility and ethics. Little comparative work, however, has yet been carried out that investigates the reasons behind such differences. The authors analyze the cases of Mexico and France by drawing on Enderle’s practical, semantic, and theoretical dimensions of business ethics. The authors further integrate the concept of “normative institutions” to explore attitudes toward CSR and assess the likely future adoption of CSR practices in each country. The article concludes that despite similar institutional conditions in Mexico and France, the interplay of those institutions combined with the historical role of business and its relationship with society produces quite different articulations of CSR in each country. The article highlights the need for further studies that explore how institutions enable and constrain business’ articulation of social responsibility.

It's COWANBUNGA time: Setting up shop in a foreign country

What happens to business negotiations when culture gets in the way? Participants are about to find out. This game is an international negotiation simulation for the classroom. Participants learn, through role-playing and observation, how cross-cultural differences complicate international business negotiations. Students are formed into pairs of teams. Each pairing involves two teams that are negotiating to set up business in a foreign country. Each pairing has one team of managers of a company from one country, and one team of government officials from a different country. These countries exhibit significant cross-cultural differences. The negotiations are conducted in front of the class, so everyone can observe and learn from the experience. The number of pairings can vary depending on class size.

Cross-Cultural Generalizability of the Theory of Planned Behavior among Young People in a Physical Activity Context

The present study tested the cross-cultural generalizability of the measurement and structural parameters of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) among youth in a physical activity context. Pupils from five cultural groups completed measures of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and intentions for physical activity. Five weeks later, participants completed self-report measures of physical activity behavior. Confirmatory factor analyses and multisample structural equation models revealed well-fitting models within each sample with minimal variations in the measurement parameters across cultures. There were a few significant cross-cultural differences in the structural relations among the TPB constructs. Attitudes predicted intentions in all samples (beta range = .300 to .550), whereas the effect of the subjective norms on intention was nonsignificant in all but the Hungarian sample (beta = .243). Conversely, the effect of PBC on intentions was significant (beta range = .302 to .573) in all but the Hungarian sample. Findings support the generalizability of the measures and pattern of effects for the TPB among young people in a physical activity context.

A Cross-Cultural Study of Teachers’ Beliefs and Strategies on Classroom Behavior Management in Urban American and Korean School Systems

The purpose of this study is to investigate teachers’ beliefs on classroom behavior management strategies for students in urban public high schools between teachers in the United States and the Republic of Korea. This study incorporates data collected from teacher self-reported survey questionnaire, which is the Attitudes and Beliefs on Classroom Control Inventory. The participants are 116 American teachers and 167 Korean teachers who are teaching high school students in each country. A two-way analysis of variance, chi-square test, independent t test, and content analysis are implemented to analyze data. The ANOVA reveals that there are no statistically significant cross-cultural differences between the two groups of educators by their years of teaching experience. Nonetheless, several key findings are identified between the two groups of educators: There are statistically significant cross-cultural differences in teachers’ instructional and students’ management styles.

Gender and Cultural Differences in Consumer Ethics in a Consumer-Retailer Interaction Context

Despite the recent growth in researching consumer ethics in marketing, investigating gender differences in cross-cultural settings in a relational context has not been researched. This research attempts to fill this void. Different degrees of retailer-customer relationships were simulated through four carefully constructed scenarios. Empirical data were gathered in two contrasting cultures. Significant gender and cross-cultural differences with regard to customer propensities to engage in ethical (unethical) behavior and its antecedents are found. Implications for domestic and international retailers are discussed.

Who buys that? Who does what? Analysis of cross-cultural consumption behaviours among tourists in Hawaii

The purpose of this paper is to investigate planned product and service consumption patterns among US, Canadian, Japanese, Chinese, South Korean and Australian/New Zealand tourists in Hawaii. Using multiple analyses of variance, the first study empirically explores the influence of a tourist's residential country of origin on planned product and service consumption. The second study explores the planned consumption differences between, and among, American and Japanese first-time and repeat visitors to Hawaii. The results reveal significant cross-cultural differences in consumption patterns among international tourists to Hawaii.

Cross-Cultural Evaluation of Health Status Using Item Response Theory

To make meaningful cross-cultural comparisons of health-related quality of life (HRQOL) or to pool international research data, it is essential to create culturally unbiased measures that detect clinically important differences between patients. We evaluated the measurement properties of the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Breast (FACT-B) in 111 Austrian and 144 U.S. patients with breast cancer using item response theory (IRT) methods. A small number of items were identified as displaying statistically significant differential item functioning (DIF), suggesting possible measurement bias. The majority of the items functioned similarly between the two cultural groups. U.S. patients reported lower (worse) physical function and well-being compared with Austrian patients, higher (better) social/family well-being and similar emotional well-being, before and after adjustment for DIF. IRT and related measurement models provide useful methods for assessing cross-cultural equivalence and determining which items can be pooled across languages before analyzing HRQOL data. Determination of clinically significant cross-cultural differences will require additional investigation.