Sign Language Proficiency Research Articles

‘It’s not (just) what you do, but the way that you do it’: factors that determine narrative ability in atypical language learners

Spoken narrative is recognized as one of the key skills acquired in childhood. Aside from storytelling, personal narratives constitute around 80% of our everyday language. Worsfold et al. provide much needed population-based information about this skill in children who have been identified with permanent childhood hearing impairment (PCHI) through universal screening, compared to those whose hearing impairment has been identified later (>9mo of age). Narrative assessment is particularly useful for certain populations because standardized tests have limitations including lack of sensitivity at lower score ranges or when assessing change over time. Indeed, recent studies suggest that parental report in combination with language assessment might prove the most effective tool, even at screening stages. There is a great need for studies examining early identification for all developmental difficulties and the large number of 89 children with PCHI reported in the Worsfold et al. paper is impressive. Only large-scale studies afford reliable generalizations and predictions to be made about the benefits of early support. The fact that children with early identification of PCHI perform as a group more favourably on (some) aspects of narrative than children identified later is not only interesting clinically, but also potentially gives us a window into the pathways of development of language. If early diagnosis is related to improved narrative skill, then as the authors point out this could eventually lead to the identification of the features of spoken language that are ‘... most sensitive to change in... children with PCHI’. However, ongoing research is needed for a full understanding to evolve. One crucially important analysis would be an examination of which underlying mechanisms might facilitate or hinder improved developmental progress for this group. Despite the authors’ claims that narrative is seldom reported in children with PCHI, a number of studies (albeit mostly using small sample or case-study methodology) have already established that various aspects of narrative and conversational ability are weaker in this population. Thus it is now important that research and practice turns to identifying exactly which factors may help improve language skills in children with PCHI. One of the most interesting but also most complex features of proficient narrative is that it involves a multitude of different skill-sets such as working memory, pragmatic skill, and meta-linguistic knowledge. Thus poor narrative ability may be the result of any one or more of these factors; and indeed good narratives may involve compensation for poor skills in one area with better skills in another. Further research needs to tease out underlying connections by including a wide range of concurrent measures. In addition, there is a lack of knowledge about the complex interplay between different developmental skills or between clinical groups. In the Worsfold et al. paper, little information is provided about the nature of the children involved, so it is unclear whether they experience comorbid difficulties or protective factors. Future studies might want to consider simultaneously the effects of exposure to and proficiency in sign language; additional (specific) language impairment; and limitations in non-verbal cognition, all of which have been noted to affect oral language ability in the PCHI population and other groups with atypical language development. A direct comparison of children with PCHI to other language-delayed groups would also be welcome in order to isolate differential strengths and weaknesses across populations. Early identification is always a positive progression for atypical groups, but it is important that we document the longterm benefits of screening and Worsfold et al. make a notable contribution to our knowledge of spoken language in this group. The longitudinal approach shown here needs to continue in order to reveal whether narrative skill in mid-childhood is predictive of later language outcomes in this group, and whether early-identified children continue to show an advantage over those diagnosed later. Unravelling the intricate relationships between early identification, developmental factors, and time is likely to be the key to effective support and therapy.

Lexical noun phrases in texts written by deaf children and adults with different proficiency levels in sign language

We report an analysis of lexical noun phrases (NPs) in narrative and expository texts written by Dutch deaf individuals from a bimodal bilingual perspective. Texts written by Dutch deaf children and adults who are either proficient in Sign Language of the Netherlands (SLN) or low-proficient in SLN were compared on structures that either overlap in Dutch and SLN (presence of overt subject and object NPs, NP modifiers, and NP-internal agreement), or are absent in SLN (articles). We found that deaf participants experienced significant difficulty with lexical NPs. Further, deaf proficiently signing children (but not adults) more often omitted obligate articles than deaf low-proficiently signing children. Deaf proficiently signing children and adults did not differ from low-proficiently signing children and adults, however, in the use of NP modifiers, NP-agreement errors and omissions of obligatory NPs. We conclude that proficiency in sign language seems to affect particularly those aspects that differ substantially across sign language and oral language, in this case, articles. We argue that adopting a bimodal bilingual approach is important to understand the writing of deaf children.

Narrative competences of Deaf children in German Sign Language

Hearing children acquire discourse competences like storytelling through everyday interaction and are systematically supported in this process by adults. In contrast, deaf children in Germany often lack appropriate interlocutors with German Sign Language proficiency in family or school. The focus of our research is on narrative competences in deaf children and on the consequences of the lack of interlocutors on the acquisition of these competences. We carried out three studies to examine narrative skills of deaf children aged 8 to 17. We collected data from dyadic conversations with deaf adults and analyzed this data against the background of a cognitive approach to language acquisition and of conversation analysis. From a developmental perspective, our results indicate that the narrative competences of most of the tested non-native signing children have not developed as would be appropriate for their age. From an interactive perspective, deaf adults cooperate with the children in telling their stories by using different strategies.

Evaluative expression in deaf children's written narratives

Deaf children vary in the use of and proficiency in signed language. The majority of studies on writing skills of children who are deaf did not assess deaf children's proficiency in signed language and/or grouped together deaf children with varying sign language skills. Adopting a bimodal bilingual perspective, we examined evaluative expression, an important narrative tool in both oral/written languages and signed languages, in narratives written in Dutch by deaf children who are proficient in Sign Language of the Netherlands (SLN) and deaf children who are low-proficient in SLN, and hearing monolingual and bilingual children. We hypothesized that deaf children who are proficient in signed language use their knowledge of evaluative expression in signed language to enrich their narratives in written Dutch, and more so than deaf children who are low-proficient in signed language and hearing monolingual and bilingual children. We examined the use of eight different evaluative devices in narratives written by deaf proficiently and low-proficiently signing children, and hearing monolingual and bilingual children. Narratives were also examined for morpho-syntactic errors and use of complex sentences. The results show that proficiently signing deaf children's narratives contain more evaluative devices that enrich the referential structure of the narrative than narratives of low-proficiently signing deaf children, and hearing bilingual and monolingual children. We propose that proficiently signing deaf children use their knowledge of SLN to convey evaluation in their written narratives, and thus have an advantage in enriching their narratives. This study also shows that in order to gain insight into deaf people's writing, it is important to take variations in sign language proficiency into account.

American Sign Language syntactic and narrative comprehension in skilled and less skilled readers: Bilingual and bimodal evidence for the linguistic basis of reading

ABSTRACTWe tested the hypothesis that syntactic and narrative comprehension of a natural sign language can serve as the linguistic basis for skilled reading. Thirty-one adults who were deaf from birth and used American Sign Language (ASL) were classified as skilled or less skilled readers using an eighth-grade criterion. Proficiency with ASL syntax, and narrative comprehension of ASL and Manually Coded English (MCE) were measured in conjunction with variables including exposure to print, nonverbal IQ, and hearing and speech ability. Skilled readers showed high levels of ASL syntatic ability and narrative comprehension whereas less skilled readers did not. Regression analyses showed ASL syntactic ability to contribute unique variance in English reading performance when the effects of nonverbal IQ, exposure to print, and MCE comprehension were controlled. A reciprocal relationship between print exposure and sign language proficiency was further found. The results indicate that the linguistic basis of reading, and the reciprocal relationship between print exposure and “through the air” language, can be bimodal, as in being a sign language or a spoken language, and bilingual, as in being ASL and English.

The assessment and achievement of proficiency in a native sign language within a sign bilingual program: The pilot Auslan receptive skills test

The assessment of sign language proficiency is essential for evaluating the outcomes of sign bilingual education. This paper reports an attempt to assess the sign language proficiency of children in a self-described sign bilingual program in Sydney by adapting a British Sign Language (BSL) test to Australian Sign Language (Auslan). The test appears to measure basic Auslan skills in young children and, in particular, appears to identify native-like signers. However, two qualifications need to be made regarding how standardized norms are established (and thus their interpretation) and the make-up and population size of this study. Namely, the original BSL test is not normed on native signers alone; and the number of subjects in the study is extremely small and varied. These factors limit the generalizations that can be made from the data. Further testing with a larger population of signers is essential before results could be confidently interpreted. However, due to the small number of potential subjects in Australia, such data may never become available. Despite these observations and qualifications, it does appear from this study that the sign bilingual program under investigation faces important challenges in ensuring that all children achieve early native-like proficiency in the community signed language.

The assessment and achievement of proficiency in a native sign language within a sign bilingual program: the pilot Auslan receptive skills test

AbstractThe assessment of sign language proficiency is essential for evaluating the outcomes of sign bilingual education. This paper reports an attempt to assess the sign language proficiency of children in a self-described sign bilingual program in Sydney by adapting a British Sign Language (BSL) test to Australian Sign Language (Auslan). The test appears to measure basic Auslan skills in young children and, in particular, appears to identify native-like signers. However, two qualifications need to be made regarding how standardized norms are established (and thus their interpretation) and the make-up and population size of this study. Namely, the original BSL test is not normed on native signers alone; and the number of subjects in the study is extremely small and varied. These factors limit the generalizations that can be made from the data. Further testing with a larger population of signers is essential before results could be confidently interpreted. However, due to the small number of potential sub...

Hand preferences in sign-learning students with autistic disorder

The purpose of the study was fourfold: (a) to document the hand preferences of nonspeaking individuals with autism as they produced signs and nonsign actions; (b) to find out if sign-language proficiency in such individuals is associated with directionality or consistency of signing hand preference; (c) to explore the link between hand preference for signing and standardised measures of cognitive and motor development; (d) to compare the hand preferences (sign and nonsign actions) of such individuals to sign-learning children with normal cognitive functioning. In this study, the hand preferences of 14 nonspeaking students with autistic disorder were determined from videotape records of their sign production and nonsign actions. In their sign production, four students strongly favoured their right hands, four had a distinct left-hand preference, and six did not significantly favour either hand. There was little evidence linking sign-language proficiency, cognitive maturity, or motor development to strongly lateralised signing or handedness in general in these students. Compared with the hand preferences of the children in the two comparison groups, the autistic students were markedly less lateralised with respect to signing, but not nonsign actions.

The Sign Language Skills Classroom Observation: A Process for Describing Sign Language Proficiency in Classroom Settings

In collaboration with teachers and students at the National Technical Institute for the Deaf (NTID), the Sign Language Skills Classroom Observation (SLSCO) was designed to provide feedback to teachers on their sign language communication skills in the classroom. In the present article, the impetus and rationale for development of the SLSCO is discussed. Previous studies related to classroom signing and observation methodology are reviewed. The procedure for developing the SLSCO is then described. This procedure included (a) interviews with faculty and students at NTID, (b) identification of linguistic features of sign language important for conveying content to deaf students, (c) development of forms for recording observations of classroom signing, (d) analysis of use of the forms, (e) development of a protocol for conducting the SLSCO, and (f) piloting of the SLSCO in classrooms. The results of use of the SLSCO with NTID faculty during a trial year are summarized.

The development and psychometric properties of the American sign language proficiency assessment (ASL-PA)

We describe the procedures for constructing an instrument designed to evaluate children's proficiency in American Sign Language (ASL). The American Sign Language Proficiency Assessment (ASL-PA) is a much-needed tool that potentially could be used by researchers, language specialists, and qualified school personnel. A half-hour ASL sample is collected on video from a target child (between ages 6 and 12) across three separate discourse settings and is later analyzed and scored by an assessor who is highly proficient in ASL. After the child's language sample is scored, he or she can be assigned an ASL proficiency rating of Level 1, 2, or 3. At this phase in its development, substantial evidence of reliability and validity has been obtained for the ASL-PA using a sample of 80 profoundly deaf children (ages 6-12) of varying ASL skill levels. The article first explains the item development and administration of the ASL-PA instrument, then describes the empirical item analysis, standard setting procedures, and evidence of reliability and validity. The ASL-PA is a promising instrument for assessing elementary school-age children's ASL proficiency. Plans for further development are also discussed.

ASL Proficiency and English Literacy within a Bilingual Deaf Education Model of Instruction

Recently researchers and educators have begun to consider the merits of developing bilingual-bicultural programs for deaf children. One focus in this debate has been the connection between natural sign language proficiency and reading and writing. This article describes some of the theoretical models and arguments inherent in this dialogue, presents the findings of a study of the relationship between American Sign Language (ASL) skills and English literacy among 155 school-aged deaf children, and discusses issues associated with making the transition between ASL and English literacy.

ASL Proficiency and English Literacy within a Bilingual Deaf Education Model of Instruction

Recently researchers and educators have begun to consider the merits of developing bilingual-bicultural programs for deaf children. One focus in this debate has been the connection between natural sign language proficiency and reading and writing. This article describes some of the theoretical model

Speech-language pathologists in schools for the deaf. A survey of scope of practice, service delivery, caseload, and program features.

Analyses of surveys of speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in schools for the Deaf across the United States enable a profile of SLPs' scope of practice, caseload size and characteristics, and delivery of services, as well as features of programs through which they serve students. The findings are compared to previous results of surveys, both large and small, of SLPs in local school programs. Results point favorably to the services provided by SLPs in schools for the Deaf in terms of SLPs' proficiency in sign language, their smaller caseloads, the amount of time they spend in direct services, and a broad range of practice that focuses on written language, sign language, and functional communication.

Conceptualizing Parents' Sign Language Use in Bilingual Early Intervention

This research study investigates how parents and interveners conceptualize parents' early sign language use. Three groups of respondents involved in the same bilingual early intervention program were being interviewed: hearing parents (n = 12), hearing teachers (n = 6), and Deaf consultants (n = 6). The search and retrieve program 'The Ethnograph' was used for data analysis. The results demonstrate that neither a framework of linguistic proficiency nor one of communicative competence captures the complexity of the issues involved for parents and interveners in conceptualizing parents' early sign language use. The interpretative frameworks of each group emphasize different aspects of the task facing parents: balancing the quest for Sign Language proficiency with emotional and practical considerations in the family, acknowledging the overriding importance of communication regardless of what one may label the language used, and confirming the visual quality and child appropriateness of the signing. Results are related to the stocks of knowledge on which respondents draw and the implications for Deaf and hearing interveners assessing parents' progress.

Motivational and Attitudinal Orientations in Learning American Sign Language

Integrative motivation was found to correlate significantly with sign language proficiency of adult learners at a post-secondary program for deaf students. Instrumental motives, however, were perceived as less important. Higher achievement in ASL was also associated with a positive cultural attitude toward deaf people. Learning of ASL as a second language may be enhanced if instructors design strategies that build upon these cultural and integrative motives and provide rewarding experiences to adult learners.

American Sign Language: The Phonological Base

This paper has the ambitious goal of outlining the phonological structures and processes we have analyzed in American Sign Language (ASL). In order to do this we have divided the paper into five parts. In section 1 we detail the types of sequential phenomena found in the production of individual signs, allowing us to argue that ASL signs are composed of sequences of phonological segments, just as are words in spoken languages. Section 2 provides the details of a segmental phonetic transcription system. Using the descriptions made available by the transcription system, Section 3 briefly discusses both paradigmatic and syntagmatic contrast in ASL signs. Section 4 deals with the various types of phonological processes at work in the language, processes remarkable in their similarity to phonological processes found in spoken languages. We conclude the paper with an overview of the major typed of phonological effects of ASL’s rich system of morphological processes. We realize that the majority of readers will come to this paper with neither sign language proficiency nor a knowledge of sign language structure. As a result, many will encounter reference to ASL signs without knowing their form. Although we have been unable to illustrate all the examples, we hope we have provided sufficient illustrations to make the paper more accessible.