Sidman Avoidance Behavior Research Articles

Prompting Sidman Avoidance Behavior in Betta splendens

Previous research has found that Betta splendens (Siamese fighting fish) often do not learn Sidman avoidance behavior, whereas other fish species, including Carassius auratus (goldfish), readily do. The present study looked at whether Betta splendens could be taught Sidman avoidance of water disturbance during four conditions: a baseline condition, two intervention or teaching phases, and a return-to-baseline condition. During the first baseline conditions three fish were exposed to a divided experimental tank that delivered water disturbance on a 30-s response-flow (i.e., water turbulence) interval after the fish remained on one side of the two-sided tank. Avoidance was defined as crossing between the sides of the tank within the 30-s interval. If the fish did not cross over, it was exposed to a 10-s flow-flow interval of water disturbance, from which it could escape by crossing over. During the first intervention or teaching phase, following each 30-s interval of non-responding (i.e., no crossover), the fish were prompted by the experimenter using a hand-held barrier to emit the avoidance response of crossing over. The crossing over responses were immediately reinforced by presenting a mirror in front of the fish. During the second teaching phase, the schedule of reinforcement was changed to a variable ratio. The second baseline condition was identical to the first baseline condition. Results showed an increase in the frequency of independent (i.e., unprompted) crossovers between the two sides of the experimental tank during the intervention phases. During the return-to-baseline condition the increased responding was maintained for one of the three fish, suggesting that at least some members of this species can learn Sidman avoidance.

Effects of Ethyl Alcohol Administration to THA Rat Dams During Their Gestation Period on Learning Behavior and on Levels of Monoamines and Metabolites in the Brain of Pups after Birth

Children born from chronic alcoholic mothers have shown behavioral teratogenic effects more frequently than morphological malformations. To investigate the possible mechanisms and evaluate maternal alcohol dosage levels to induce behavioral dysfunctions, we gave pregnant Tokai High Avoider (THA) rats 0, 5, 10, and 20% ethanol (EtOH) as drinking water during the gestation period. We evaluated the brain function of pups born of alcohol-administered dams. Sidman avoidance behavior test and the levels of monoamines (nor-adrenalin, dopamine, and serotonin) and metabolites (3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid, homovanillic acid, and 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid) in whole brain were examined for neurobehavioral and neurochemical effects. EtOH-exposed THA offsprings showed high pre- and postnatal mortality, growth deficits, and brain weight reductions. Compared with the results of the same conditioning experiment using Wistar rats, the THA rat may have higher susceptibility to the effects of in utero EtOH exposure than Wistar rats. EtOH-exposed THA pups exhibited deficits in avoidance operant learning that were not shown in Wistar rats. We also observed the increased levels of all monoamines that were assumed to be related with the deficit of learning, the decreased levels of 3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid and homovanillic acid, and the unchanged levels of 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid in pups from dams administered 10 and 20% EtOH. However, contrary alteration of monoamines and their metabolites were shown in pups from 5% EtOH-administered dams.

Effects of Ethyl Alcohol Administration to THA Rat Dams During Their Gestation Period on Learning Behavior and on Levels of Monoamines and Metabolites in the Brain of Pups after Birth

Children born from chronic alcoholic mothers have shown behavioral teratogenic effects more frequently than morphological malformations. To investigate the possible mechanisms and evaluate maternal alcohol dosage levels to induce behavioral dysfunctions, we gave pregnant Tokai High Avoider (THA) rats 0, 5,10, and 20% ethanol (EtOH) as drinking water during the gestation period. We evaluated the brain function of pups born of alcohol-administered dams. Sidman avoidance behavior test and the levels of monoamines (nor-adrenalin, dopamine, and serotonin) and metabolites (3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl acetic acid, homovanillic acid, and 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid) in whole brain were examined for neurobehavioral and neurochemical effects. EtOH-exposed THA offsprings showed high pre-and postnatal mortality, growth deficits, and brain weight reductions. Compared with the results of the same conditioning experiment using Wistar rats, the THA rat may have higher susceptibility to the effects of in utero EtOH exposure than Wistar rats. EtOH-exposed THA pups exhibited deficits in avoidance operant learning that were not shown in Wistar rats. We also observed the increased levels of all monoamines that were assumed to be related with the deficit of learning, the decreased levels of 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid and homovanillic acid, and the unchanged levels of 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid in pups from dams administered 10 and 20% EtOH. However, contrary alteration of monoamines and their metabolites were shown in pups from 5% EtOH-administered dams.

Effects of ethyl alcohol administration to rat dams during the gestation period on learning behavior and on levels of monoamines and metabolites in rat pup brain after birth

Pregnant rats were given 0%-, 5%-, 10%- and 20% ethyl alcohol in drinking water during the gestation period.We evaluated the brain function of pups born of alcohol-administered dams. Learning ability (Sidman avoidance behavior), the amounts of monoamines (noradrenalin, dopamine, serotonin) and metabolites (3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid [DOPAC], homovanillic acid [HVA] and 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid [5-HIAA])in whole brain were examined for neurobehavioral and neurochemical effects.There was no effect on Sidman avoidance behavior in 56-day-old offspring, but alterations of the amounts of monoamines and their metabolites were observed even in 66-day-old offspring as a result of the dams' exposure to ethanol during pregnancy.

Differential effect of 5-hydroxytryptophan on approach and avoidance behavior in rats

The current hypersensitive postsynaptic serotonin receptor theory of depression developed and expanded by Aprison and Hingtgen was based on an animal model of behavior in which food-reinforced approach behavior was suppressed following 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) administration. In this paper, data are presented to show that when the same animal is taught to emit, alternatingly, approach and avoidance behavior, and the serotonin precursor, 5-HTP, is administered, only the approach behavior is affected. Adult, male Wistar rats were trained on Sidman avoidance (RS20:SS10) and food-reinforced approach (VI 1) schedules. During the first part of this study, rats received separately 50-min sessions for approach and avoidance responding. For the second part, both schedules were given in the same experimental chamber. In the third part, 10-min alternating approach and avoidance components were combined in the same 50-min sessions. Significant behavioral suppression of approach responding was observed following administration of L-5-HTP (50 mg/kg IP), as well as after D,L-5-HTP (25 and 50 mg/kg IP) in a dose-dependent relationship, whereas no significant effect was seen for Sidman avoidance responding during this type of session. These results support the role of serotonin in food-reinforced approach behavior and suggest that suppression of Sidman avoidance behavior may be mediated by other neurotransmitter systems.

Effects of peri- and postnatal lead administration on learning of high avoider rats

Effects of administration of lead acetate on Sidman avoidance behavior were assessed in juvenile and adult rats which were obtained by continued selective breeding and which have a high level avoidance ability and small individual differences (THA rat: Tokai high avoider rat). THA rats were administered lead acetate solution at 200-300 mg/kg/day as Pb until 7 wk of age through maternal milk before weaning from mothers which had been administered lead acetate from the 13th day of gestation and per os by gastric tube after weaning. Three series of Sidman avoidance behavior tests were conducted from 49th, 100th and 150th day after birth each for 10 d, 1 h every day. In the first series, a significant delay of shock avoidance acquisition was observed in lead-administered male rats compared with the control subjects, while no acquisition delay was seen in female rats. The lead administered male rats could be divided into two groups with different response patterns; a low susceptible group (LSG) which exhibited as good acquisition rate from the beginning similar to the control rats and a high susceptible group (HSG) which showed a significant delay and individual differences. In the 2nd test series, very high avoidance rates were obtained in all the test groups except in male HSG, but in the 3rd test series, male HSG also attained a final acquisition of high avoidance rate. There was no developmental variation between the groups nor difference in lead contents of the organs of the exposed group. Useful characteristics of THA rats for behavioral toxicology are discussed.

“Warmup” and “cooldown” in Sidman avoidance behavior of rats: A dual‐process interpretation

The present experiment investigated relations between “warmup” in unsignalled Sidman avoidance in rats and the intensity of shock. Magnitude of shock‐rate change was quantified by comparing the rat's behavior during the initial third and the final two thirds of the same session. Warmup was said to occur whenever the shock rate during the initial 20 min was higher than the shock rate during the final 40 min of a 60 min session. “Cooldown” was defined as lower shock rate during the initial 20 min than during the final 40 min. Warmup was observed when shocks were intense, cooldown was observed when shocks were low intensity, and neither was observed when medium‐intensity shocks were administered. Response‐rate changes were correlated with shock‐rate changes, but were smaller. The results are interpreted within the framework of a dual‐process theory of habituation.

Effects of Lead on Sidman Avoidance Behavior by Lever Pressing in Rats

Effects of Lead on Sidman Avoidance Behavior by Lever Pressing in Rats

Effects of Ionized Air on Early Acquisition of Sidman Avoidance Behavior by Rats

This research investigated the effects of positive and negative air ionization on the early acquisition of a Sidman (1953) avoidance response. The subjects were 20 male albino rats of the Sprague-Dawley strain. They were randomly assigned to ionization conditions and given 4 2-hr. acquisition sessions. The temporal parameters of the task were a response-shock interval of 20 sec. and a shock-shock interval of 5 sec. Shocks were delivered as 1-ma. pulses of 1 sec. duration. The results indicated that at the end of 4 2-hr. sessions the avoidance performance of rats trained in the presence of negative air ions was superior to that of rats trained in the presence of positive air ions.

Relationship between brain monoamine levels and sidman avoidance behavior in rats treated with tyrosine and tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitors

Summary Correlation between brain monoamine levels and Sidman avoidance response was studied in male Wistar rats whose brain serotonin and/or catecholamines were lowered by treatment with α-methyl-p-tyrosine (α-MT), p -chlorophenylalanine ( p -CPA) and α-propyldopacetamide (H 22/54). A marked decrease in the avoidance response rate was observed after administration of α-MT (2 × 100mg/kg, i.p.). α-MT considerably lowered the brain norepinephrine content but had little effect on brain serotonin. These changes induced by α-MT were reversed by administration of l -DOPA (100 mg/kg, i.p.). On the other hand, p -CPA (300 mg/kg, p.o.) produced a significant increase in the avoidance response rate with a decrease in the number of shocks for several days. p -CPA markedly lowered the brain serotonin level, while leaving the norepinephrine level almost unaffected. The changes caused by p -CPA were completely antagonized by administration of 5-hydroxytryptophan (50 mg/kg, i.p.). H 22/54 did not alter the avoidance response rate although the drug produced a marked reduction of brain norepinephrine and serotonin contents. These results suggest the existence of a catecholaminergic excitatory system and a serotoninergic inhibitory system on the avoidance behavior.

Positive conditioned reinforcement of Sidman avoidance behavior in rats.

Positive conditioned reinforcement of Sidman avoidance behavior in rats.

Extinction of Sidman avoidance behavior.

Extinction of Sidman avoidance behavior by eliminating the noxious stimulus was studied in Sprague-Dawley rats with bar-pressing as the response. Each of three subjects was trained and extinguished on each of the following schedules in a different order: nondiscriminated, response-shock interval = 20 sec, shock-shock interval = 5 sec; nondiscriminated, response-shock interval = 40 sec, shock-shock interval = 5 sec; discriminated, response-white noise interval = 15 sec, noise-shock interval = 5 sec, shock-shock interval = 5 sec. Less than one 4-hr session was required for extinction for all procedures. When a warning stimulus was present, resistance to extinction increased. Subjects did not, however, respond to avoid the signal. Only small differences in extinction were found after training on different schedules with no warning signal.

Response consequences and Sidman avoidance behavior in the goldfish

Goldfish were given a single 6-h Sidman avoidance training session with a shock to shock (S-S) interval of 5 sec, and a response to shock (R-S) interval of 2, 5, 10, 15, 20 or 40 sec. Results indicated that performance was an inverted U-shaped function of R-S interval, with highest terminal response rates being found with the 15 sec and 20 sec R-S groups.

Facilitation of Sidman avoidance behavior by positive brain stimulation.

Facilitation of Sidman avoidance behavior by positive brain stimulation.

Discriminated Sidman avoidance behavior by guinea pigs

Three guinea pigs learned to postpone signalled electric shocks by pressing a bar. Although bar holding served to postpone shocks, the animals, unlike rats, did not bar-hold indefinitely. There was evidence of “avoidance decrement” in that shock densities increased with training, but this was not accompanied by a comparable decrease in response rate.

Free operant avoidance as a function of the response-shock = shock-shock interval.

Two temporal parameters of free operant or Sidman avoidance behavior are the interval by which responses postpone shocks (Response-Shock interval) and the interval between shocks when no responses occur (Shock-Shock interval). Avoidance behavior was examined in three white rats under conditions where the Response-Shock and Shock-Shock intervals were always equal. With intervals from 10 to 60 sec response rates and shock rates were similar, decreasing, negatively accelerated functions of increasing Response-Shock=Shock-Shock interval. Over this range, response and shock rates were linearly related to the reciprocal of the Response-Shock=Shock-Shock interval. It was shown, however, that this relation cannot hold at extremely long intervals. Both the ratio of responses emitted to shocks received and the percentage of shocks possible which were avoided increased at long Response-Shock=Shock-Shock intervals. These findings may be related to the fact that long intervals provide optimal conditions for conditioning avoidance behavior in the rat.

Effects of increasing punishment frequency on Sidman avoidance behavior

Marmoset monkeys, trained to bar press in a Sidman avoidance procedure were punished with decreased, response-contingent shock ratios. Initial increases in response frequencies were rapidly replaced by reduced rates. Avoidance percentages were not appreciably altered, even when every other response was punished. Eventually, an optimal balance was established between adequate avoidance responding and minimal exposure to the punishment contingencies.

SOME SEQUENTIAL ASPECTS OF IRTS EMITTED DURING SIDMAN-AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR IN THE WHITE RAT.

This study investigated some of the serial patterns among interresponse times during Sidman avoidance. It was found that the momentary probability of a response was determined by the length of exposure to the avoidance procedure during a session, by the time since the last shock, and by the duration of the preceding IRT.