Short Track Speed Research Articles

Tactical positioning behaviours in short-track speed skating: A static and dynamic sequence analysis

ABSTRACT Tactical positioning is essential for success in short-track speed skating as the race format (direct, head-to-head competition over multiple laps) prioritises finishing position over finishing time. Despite this, current research into tactical positioning treats the race’s laps as discrete, independent events. Accordingly, the aggregate metrics used to summarise each lap’s tactical positioning behaviour do not allow us to explore the sequential nature of the data, e.g., Lap 2 occurs after Lap 1 and before Lap 3. Here, we capture the sequential relationships between laps to investigate tactical positioning behaviours in short-track speed skating. Using intermediate and final rankings from 500 m, 1,000 m, and 1,500 m elite short-track races, we analyse whole-race and sub-race race sequences of group and winner tactical positioning behaviours. This approach, combined with a large dataset of races collected over eight seasons of competition ( = 4,135), provides the most rigorous and comprehensive description of tactical positioning behaviours in short-track speed skating to date. Our results quantify the time-evolving complexity of tactical positioning, offer new thoughts on race strategy, and can help practitioners design more representative learning tasks to enhance skill transfer.

Evaluation of muscle energy in isometric maintenance as an index of muscle fatigue in roller speed skating.

Roller speed skating is a discipline in which muscle fatigue plays an important role in athletes; in this work, we wanted to evaluate whether a methodological approach based on the energy required to maintain an isometric muscle contraction for one minute, indexed on the MVIC (maximum voluntary isometric contraction), i.e. % RMS/MVIC can give results similar to the frequency decay analysis/time in terms of usability for athlete training and injury prevention. Right and left gluteus maximus and vastus lateralis muscles (involved in the propulsive phase of skating ) were examined separately by surface electromyography in three competitive athletes in short-track speed skating on asphalt. The results showed an asymmetry between the right (less resistant) and left (more resistant) lower limb, in all three athletes, from the point of view of fatigue, in both investigated muscles. Furthermore, a trend in terms of fatigue resistance was found that was directly proportional to skill in both muscles studied. This can be of help in better planning the training of street speed skaters (which although similar to the discipline on ice is not completely superimposable) with the dual purpose of improving their performance and preventing injuries, often linked to the degree of right-left muscle asymmetry.

Study of the psychomotor abilities of athletes in cyclic sports, martial arts and esports

Purpose: to conduct a comparative analysis of psychomotor abilities in athletes of cyclic sports (short track), martial arts (karate, taekwondo) and esports (CS:GO). Materials, participants and methods: The study involved athletes of percussion martial arts (n=10, age 18,9±0,12, candidates for master of sports), elite players of semi-professional CS:GO teams (n=10, age 19,2±0,50), short track speed skaters (n=10, age 19±0,09, masters of sports). The choice reaction time, the frequency of local movements (60-second tapping test), and the reaction time to a change in the size of the object (Size-test) were determined. Research results. Esports athletes have the best reaction time of choice and tapping test compared to other athletes. The wrestlers showed the best reaction to distinguishing the size of an object in the Size-Test. Skaters have high rates of complex reaction time and frequency of movements. The duration of the tapping test has a likely inverse relationship with the frequency of tapping. Conclusions. It was found that esports athletes have a significantly better choice reaction time (p<0,05) than martial arts athletes. The results of short track skaters do not have significant differences with martial arts and esports athletes (p>0.05). The results of the tapping test in terms of the total number of movements and the average number for 5 s in esports athletes tend to be higher compared to short track speed skaters and martial arts athletes. The fastest response time to a change in the size of an object in the Size-test was shown by martial arts athletes, the slowest by short-track skaters. This reflects the trend towards better results of this type of reaction in martial arts athletes compared to short track speed skaters and esports athletes.

IMPACTOS DO TREINAMENTO DE COORDENAÇÃO FÍSICA SOBRE A VELOCIDADE NA PATINAÇÃO DE VELOCIDADE EM PISTA CURTA

ABSTRACT Introduction Although the development time of short-track speed skating in China is relatively short, with the joint efforts of many athletes and coaches, the special technical level can be comparable with that of European and American countries. Objective Verify the impacts of physical coordination training on speed in short track speed skating. Methods Athletes from the provincial skating team were randomly selected and distributed into control and experimental groups to apply the training method on physical coordination in short track speed skating. Results The average body fat rate of the skaters in the control group was 15.24%, the average body fat rate in the control group was 15.20%, and the T value of the experimental group and control group was 1.00, P = 0.374 < 0.05. Conclusion Because they are special equipment, the turn resistance training device and the air resistance parachute played an important role in improving the special fitness of Chinese short track speed skaters. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

MELHORIA DA CAPACIDADE EXPLOSIVA CORPORAL EM PATINADORAS DE VELOCIDADE EM PISTA CURTA

ABSTRACT Introduction The peculiar characteristics of short track speed skating should be integrated into the psychology of competitions; it is considered that elite athletes engaged in this particular sport should have a healthy psychic condition. Objective Investigate the explosive power of female speed skaters in short track speed skating. Methods 10 key athletes from the national short track speed skating team were selected, and explosive power was tested by T-test, hexagonal test, and pro sensitivity test. Data analysis was performed using an independent sample t-test, differences in the results of related test indicators between groups were analyzed, and repeated measures analysis of variance was used. Results During the explosive kick phase, knee extension speed increased linearly from 210°/S to 600°/S, and hip extension speed increased linearly from 200°/S to 400°/S. Conclusion The development of muscle group strength and explosive power during training often shows differences in the degree of contraction, which is related to the arrangement of training methods. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

Exploring Social Media Commentary Pertaining to Physical and Sexual Abuse in South Korean Ice-Skating

The purpose of this study was to examine how South Korean individuals responded to Olympic short track speed skater Shim Suk-hee’s sexual abuse accusations toward her former coach Cho Jae-bum, as well as the perceptions associated with the culture of South Korea’s elite sport organization, the Korea Skating Union. Specifically, Facebook comments made to posts on the three digital news platforms (Dispatch, Insight, and SBS News) in South Korea were analyzed through the lens of framing theory. Data were analyzed using a thematic analysis. Three themes emerged inductively from the data analysis including (a) emotions; (b) punishment for authority figures; and (c) further investigations of similar cases. Comments illustrated South Korean publics’ anger with their desire to see Cho face stricter punishment for his abuse of Shim. In addition, comments discussed calling for more thorough investigations into similar cases of abuse. Lastly, South Korean individuals showed an overall dissatisfaction of the current system and culture of the Korean Skating Union without transparency.

Retracted: Efficacy of NHP66 Bioactive Cage on Patients with Cervical Spine Injury in Short-Track Speed Skating.

[This retracts the article DOI: 10.1155/2022/6088398.].

Assessment of Asymmetrical Lower Limb Loading in the Short-Track Speed Skaters

Background. Short-track speed skaters who regularly participate in training are exposed to the occurrence of asymmetry in the lower limb loading. 
 Objective. The study aimed to assess the symmetry of the lower limb loading in short track skaters and the relationship between age, training experience and anthropometric variables and symmetry of lower limb loading.
 Methods. The examined group consisted of 20 short-track speed skaters (12 men and 8 women), and the control group comprised 28 university students (14 men and 14 women). Two scales were used to assess the symmetry of lower limb loading, and the lower limb's loading symmetry index (LSI) was calculated. 
 Results. In the studied groups 65% of skaters and 82% of students have LSI within the normal range. Most short-track speed skaters (85%) put weight on the right lower limb, and there was no clear trend among students (p < 0.001). In the group of skaters, the majority of men (83%) properly loaded their lower limbs, compared to 37.5% of women (p = 0.036). In short-track speed skaters, positive correlations were found between LSI and the age and length of training.
 Conclusions. Long-term asymmetric loading of the lower limbs in short-track speed skaters causes the advantage of the load on the right lower limb and increases the asymmetry of the load on the lower limbs, especially in women.

국내 쇼트트랙 스피드스케이팅의 연구동향

The purpose of this study was to examine the research trends of ‘short track speed skating in Korea’, to present academic reflection and development direction through research analysis, and to provide basic data. A total of 167 domestic theses and journal articles were collected through six keywords. In addition, the following research questions were raised. There will be differences in the classification of papers, research subjects, research areas, and research methods of domestic short track speed skating by research year. In order to derive the results of these research problems, SPSS 29.0 was used to analyze the results. Based on the results of the analysis, reliability of the research was secured by measuring the reliability among the evaluators. The results of the analysis are as follows: First, the number of theses and journals has steadily increased, but the number of theses has recently decreased. Second, there were many studies on participants, and the study on instructors, parents, and equipment was insufficient. Third, the research division was concentrated on sports psychology, exercise physiology, and exercise mechanics, and recently it has been decreasing in all research divisions except sports industry and management. Fourth, quantitative research accounted for the largest proportion of research methods, followed by qualitative research and mixed research.

Simulation of Competitive Activities of Skaters in Short-Track

Modeling of competitive activity forms the basis for the rationalization and improvement of those means and methods that are used in sports training of athletes. In this regard, a hypothesis was put forward that predictive skating models will ensure the achievement of a certain level of sports results in short-track speed skating.
 Study purpose. The aim of the study was to develop a prognostic model of the competitive activity of elite athletes at a distance of 500 m in short-track on the basis of regression analysis with a focus on achieving specified results.
 Materials and methods. The study used an analysis of official competition protocols, modeling method, statistical analysis. The behavior of changes in the speed of skating at a distance of 500 m in 173 elite athletes was analyzed. The main components of competitive activity in short-track were revealed.
 Results. The results obtained have theoretical significance which lies in the scientific substantiation of the need to improve competitive activity on the basis of its studying and the building of skating models. Their practical significance consists in the development and use of models of competitive activity of elite athletes at a distance of 500 m in short-track, taking into account the construction of a skating option. The presented data are an action plan that allows you to purposefully manage the training process and improve the training of athletes in short-track speed skating at a distance of 500 m in an annual cycle. When processing the results of the study, the level of statistical significance was taken as p ≤ 0.05.
 Conclusions. The informative characteristics of competitive activity that affect the result at a distance of 500 m include acceleration speed and running speed on the first, second, third and fourth laps of the distance, multiple correlation coefficient r = 0.985 (p < 0.01). These are objective criteria which are a system-forming factor that determines the structure and content of the training process of elite athletes, and allow monitoring the level of special readiness, as well as predicting the ways of further improvement and making timely corrections in the training process.

Relationship Between Strength And Power In Elite Short Track Speed Skaters

PURPOSE: To examine the relationship between strength and power in elite short track speed skaters. METHODS: Ten males (mean ± SD; age 21.1 ± 1.9 y; height = 177.2 ± 5.3 cm; mass = 71.3 ± 4.8 kg) and five females (age 22.8 ± 1.3 y; height 169.1 ± 4.3 cm; mass = 60.4 ± 1.3 kg) elite short track speed skaters volunteered and consented to an IRB approved informed consent to participate. Anthropometric measurements were recorded followed by a dynamic warm-up. The athletes completed four assessments: isometric (ISOM) torque, isokinetic (ISOK) torque, vertical jump (VJ), and Wingate testing. An isokinetic dynamometer was used to assess ISOM and ISOK torque for both right and left knee extensors and flexors. For ISOK torque, participants completed one set of five repetitions at a velocity of 60°/s. ISOM assessment used a stationary 60-degree knee angle, where participants completed three repetitions for three seconds each. Peak torque for quadriceps (QUAD) and hamstrings (HAM) for both right leg (RL) and left leg (LL) were used for analysis. The VJ test was completed on an AMTI force plate, where peak power (PP) output was used for analysis. Lastly, participants conducted a Wingate anaerobic cycling test at a load of 9 g/kg of body mass, where PP output was used for analysis. SPSS 24 was used to analyze Pearson r correlations between strength and power variables. RESULTS: There was a moderately strong significant (p = 0.006) correlation (r = .669) between VJ PP and ISOK RL HAM PT. There was a moderately strong significant correlation between Wingate PP and ISOK LL QUAD PT (p = 0.004; r = .695) and ISOK RL HAM PT (p = 0.002; r = .721). There was a moderate significant correlation between Wingate PP and ISOK RL QUAD PT (p = 0.029; r = .562), ISOK LL HAM PT (p = 0.028; r = .565), and ISOM LL QUAD PT (p = 0.037; r = .542). CONCLUSIONS:Short track speed skaters train to focus on repeatable explosive movement during competition which corresponds to their lower extremity strength. During a race, short track speed skaters’ LL is in a more fixed position while the RL is isokinetically moving, which relates to our findings that the ISOM LL QUAD was correlated with PP and RL HAM and QUAD ISOK were correlated with PP. Practitioners may use this as a reference to gain insight on the benefits of training for power and strength to enhance performance.

Monitoring Variables Influence on Random Forest Models to Forecast Injuries in Short-Track Speed Skating.

Injuries limit the athletes' ability to participate fully in their training and competitive process. They are detrimental to performance, affecting the athletes psychologically while limiting physiological adaptations and long-term development. This study aims to present a framework for developing random forest classifier models, forecasting injuries in the upcoming 1 to 7 days, to assist the performance support staff in reducing injuries and maximizing performance within the Canadian National Female Short-Track Speed Skating Program. Forty different variables monitored daily over two seasons (2018–2019 and 2019–2020) were used to develop two sets of forecasting models. One includes only training load variables (TL), and a second (ALL) combines a wide array of monitored variables (neuromuscular function, heart rate variability, training load, psychological wellbeing, past injury type, and location). The sensitivity (ALL: 0.35 ± 0.19, TL: 0.23 ± 0.03), specificity (ALL: 0.81 ± 0.05, TL: 0.74 ± 0.03) and Matthews Correlation Coefficients (MCC) (ALL: 0.13 ± 0.05, TL: −0.02 ± 0.02) were computed. Paired T-test on the MCC revealed statistically significant (p < 0.01) and large positive effects (Cohen d > 1) for the ALL forecasting models' MCC over every forecasting window (1 to 7 days). These models were highly determined by the athletes' training completion, lower limb and trunk/lumbar injury history, as well as sFatigue, a training load marker. The TL forecasting models' MCC suggests they do not bring any added value to forecast injuries. Combining a wide array of monitored variables and quantifying the injury etiology conceptual components significantly improve the injury forecasting performance of random forest models. The ALL forecasting models' performances are promising, especially on one time windows of one or two days, with sensitivities and specificities being respectively above 0.5 and 0.7. They could add value to the decision-making process for the support staff in order to assist the Canadian National Female Team Short-Track Speed Skating program in reducing the number of incomplete training days, which could potentially increase performance. On longer forecasting time windows, ALL forecasting models' sensitivity and MCC decrease gradually. Further work is needed to determine if such models could be useful for forecasting injuries over three days or longer.

Dose-response relationship between training load and anaerobic performance in female short-track speed skaters: A prospective cohort study

This study aimed to assess the dose-response relationship (DRR) between measures of training load (TL) and anaerobic performance in female short-track speed skaters. TL data from 22 female short-track speed skaters (mean ± SD; calendar age 20.7 ± 2.01 years, training length 4.18 ± 1.23 years, height 164.20 ± 5.53 cm, weight 52.00 ± 5.58 kg) was collected over a six week period. Participants completed two anaerobic capacity assessments (cycling parameters: total work, maximal anaerobic power [MAnP], power duration indices, maximal blood lactate, fatigue indices, and peak power output [PPO]) pre- and post-training, which included three tests (short-term, intermediate-term, and 120 s maximal anaerobic test). The mean weekly TL measures calculated were total distance, red zone (time spent > 85% of peak heart rate), Edwards training impulse (eTRIMP), Stagno training impulse (gTRIMP), Lucia training impulse, and session ratings of perceived exertion. The gTRIMP identified a curvilinear relationship and explained 79% and 63% of the variance in changes of MAnPi and PPO (R2 = 0.79, 95%CI = 0.64 to 1.00, turn point 621AU; R2 = 0.63, 95%CI = 0.27 to 1.00, turn point 633AU, respectively). Likewise, The eTRIMP identified a curvilinear relationship and explained 62% and 54% of the variance in changes of MAnPi and PPO (R2 = 0.62, 95%CI = 0.11 to 1.00, turn point 485AU; R2 = 0.54, 95%CI = 0.07 to 1.00, turn point 515AU, respectively). All other variables exhibited a DRR below moderate. This study investigated a TL strategy to improve the speed endurance of female short-track speed skaters and suggested the superiority of gTRIMP and eTRIMP methods of internal TL.

How Ice Rink Locations Affect Performance Time in Short-Track Speed Skating.

PurposeTo accurately provide evaluations on how match performance for elite skaters in short track speed skating developed, and whether geographical factors of ice rink locations should be considered apart from technical abilities. We created a dataset containing competition records from the 2013–14 to 2020–21 seasons (500 m event) on the official website.MethodsOne-way ANOVA was applied to statistically analyze whether the best performance times exhibited significant differences in varied hosting cities. Performance–time matrix and multivariate regression model were further established to quantitatively explain how geographical factors (longitude, latitude, altitude, and barometric pressure) affected performance.ResultsOur findings firstly confirmed that the fastest 500 m finishing times varied due to the hosting cities (P = 0.008) and showed that venue locations could boost or impair performance time with the maximum range of 3.6 s. Meanwhile, latitude (slightly over 46° when performance is maximized) was the most influential factor to account for the performance–time difference in different ice rink locations according to the multivariate regression model, though altitude (1,225 meters when performance is maximized) was also important.ConclusionsIn this perspective, elite skaters should check the geographical factors of the venues before they participated in the upcoming competitions, assess the real strength of their rivals, and adopt flexible tactics during training sessions.

Tactical positioning in short-track speed skating: The utility of race-specific athlete-opponent interactions

ABSTRACT In short-track speed skating, tactical positioning is essential for success as the race format (head-to-head) prioritises finishing position over finishing time. At present, our understanding of this phenomenon is based on measuring the similarity between athletes’ intermediate and final rankings. However, as this approach groups athlete performances across races, each lap’s estimate of tactical importance ignores the athlete-opponent interactions specific to each race. Here, we examine the utility of race-specific athlete-opponent interactions for investigating tactical positioning. Using intermediate and final rankings of elite 1,000 m short-track speed skating competitors collected from 2010/11–2017/18 (n = 6,196, races = 1,549), we compared the current method to a novel approach that accounted for race-specific athlete-opponent interactions. This approach first applied the current method to each race independently before using these values to form (1) discrete, empirical distributions of each lap’s tactical importance and (2) race-specific tactical positioning sequences. Our results showed that accounting for race-specific athlete-opponent interactions provided a higher measurement granularity (i.e. level of detail) for investigating tactical positioning in short-track speed skating, which better captured the complexity of the phenomenon. We observed 61 different tactical positioning behaviours and 1,269 unique tactical positioning sequences compared to the current approach’s nine-point estimates of tactical positioning importance. For this reason, we recommend that researchers and practitioners account for race-specific athlete-opponent interactions in the future as it offers a deeper understanding of tactical positioning that will enhance both strategic and tactical decisions. Highlights We compare the current approach for investigating tactical positioning to a novel approach that accounts for race-specific athlete-opponent interactions. We show that accounting for race-specific athlete-opponent interactions provides a higher measurement granularity (i.e. level of detail) for investigating tactical positioning in short-track speed skating. We demonstrate that this increased measurement granularity can facilitate a deeper understanding of tactical positioning by (1) producing theoretically-more-correct point estimates of tactical positioning importance, (2) enabling more rigorous statistical analyses into the effect of athlete-environment interactions on tactical positioning behaviour, and (3) allowing sequential analyses that capture the progressive relationships between laps. We recommend that researchers and practitioners account for race-specific athlete-opponent interactions in future investigations, as the findings will enhance analyst, coach, and athlete preparation for the strategic and tactical decision-making process essential for success in short-track.

Injuries in Skating and Sledding Winter Sports: Patterns and Imaging Findings.

While skiing and snowboarding are amongst the most common winter sports, skating and sledding activities are also popular for competition or recreation. Related injuries following an acute trauma mainly involve head, spine, upper and lower limbs. For elite athletes, overuse injuries represent a significant burden. In skating, lesions can be related to boot structure and design. This article reviews epidemiology, patterns, and imaging findings of common injuries in ice skating, short track speed skating, curling, luge, bobsleigh, and skeleton.

Efficacy of NHP66 Bioactive Cage on Patients with Cervical Spine Injury in Short-Track Speed Skating.

Background Short-track speed skating (STSS) is an extreme sport in pursuit of extreme speed and explosive force. In such a sport, once athletes fall down, they are susceptible to serious cervical spine injury (CSI) under the inertia of high-velocity movement. Nanohydroxyapatite/polyamide 66 (NHP66) bioactive cage is a high-tech product of nanotechnology in the medical field in recent years. With a structure similar to that of human cortical bone, NHP66 bioactive cage has extremely high toughness and strength, which tailors to the needs of STSS. Objective This study mainly analyzed the therapeutic effect of NHP66 on patients with CSI in STSS, aiming to provide new opportunities for the treatment of this patient population. Methods A total of 51 patients with CSI treated in our hospital were enrolled, including 19 cases of short-track speed skaters (observation group) and 32 cases of car accidents, falls from heights, or collision injuries (control group). The relevant surgical indicators (operation time, intraoperative blood loss, etc.), the incidence of adverse reactions, the Cobb angle of cervical lordosis before and after surgery, and the fusion segment height of the cage were observed and compared between the two groups. Postoperative pain was evaluated by the visual analog scale (VAS), improvement of spinal cord injury was assessed by the American Spinal Cord Injury Association (ASIA) Impairment Scale, and bone fusion, bone subsidence, and other motor functions were assessed by the Japanese Orthopaedic Association (JOA) score rating system. Results The operation time, intraoperative blood loss, and incidence of adverse reactions in the observation group were significantly lower than those in the control group. The Cobb angle of cervical lordosis and the fusion segment height of cage increased significantly higher in both groups after surgery. In addition, the VAS scores of the observation group 2 h and 3 d after operation were significantly lower than those of the control group. In terms of improvement of spinal cord injury, ASIA and JOA scores in the observation group were significantly higher than those before treatment and in the control group. There was no significant difference in bone fusion activity between the two groups. Conclusions In this study, it is found through experiments that NHP66 has higher safety and application value than autogenous iliac bone, confirming that NHP66 can achieve significant results as a cage for anterior cervical decompression and iliac bone graft fusion and internal fixation in short-track speed skaters after CSI.

Training load responses modelling and model generalisation in elite sports

This study aims to provide a transferable methodology in the context of sport performance modelling, with a special focus to the generalisation of models. Data were collected from seven elite Short track speed skaters over a three months training period. In order to account for training load accumulation over sessions, cumulative responses to training were modelled by impulse, serial and bi-exponential responses functions. The variable dose-response (DR) model was compared to elastic net (ENET), principal component regression (PCR) and random forest (RF) models, while using cross-validation within a time-series framework. ENET, PCR and RF models were fitted either individually (M_{I}) or on the whole group of athletes (M_{G}). Root mean square error criterion was used to assess performances of models. ENET and PCR models provided a significant greater generalisation ability than the DR model (p = 0.018, p < 0.001, p = 0.004 and p < 0.001 for ENET_{I}, ENET_{G}, PCR_{I} and PCR_{G}, respectively). Only ENET_{G} and RF_{G} were significantly more accurate in prediction than DR (p < 0.001 and p < 0.012). In conclusion, ENET achieved greater generalisation and predictive accuracy performances. Thus, building and evaluating models within a generalisation enhancing procedure is a prerequisite for any predictive modelling.

The factors for shortening the lap times in the short track speed skating

The factors for shortening the lap times in the short track speed skating

Champion Position Analysis in Short Track Speed Skating Competitions From 2007 to 2019.

Purpose: Short track speed skating is a racing sport with racing tactics are equally crucial to speed and technical skating skills. Therefore, to investigate the relationship between starting and finishing positions for elite skaters and subsequently, explore pacing patterns for champions are necessary.Methods: To investigate a pattern of effective tactical positioning strategy, Kendall’s tau-b correlations between starting and finishing position were calculated, with 500 m races having the most positive correlation (0.347, P < 0.05).Results: Furthermore, starting position distributions of winners in each round, as well as the fluctuations in champion starting positions across rounds were analyzed. Our findings showed that skaters on the first track were inclined to win the rounds in 500, 1,000, and 1,500 m (28, 28, and 22%, respectively), and the differences between starting and finishing positions for champions were minimized in semi-finals. Meanwhile, the pacing patterns were gaining more fluctuations by the increase of race distances for champions, as the average standard deviation of lap rankings equaled 0.90, 1.15, and 2.21 for 500, 1,000, and 1,500 m races, respectively.Conclusion: In conclusion, elite skaters should adopt flexible tactics at the lowest cost of energy consumption. The overall variability of lap ranking in long-distance races were distinctly higher than it in short distance.