Shipped Samples Research Articles

Variability of Air–Sea Interactions over the Indian Ocean Derived from Satellite Observations

Abstract Novel ways of monitoring the large-scale variability of the southwest monsoon in the Indian Ocean are presented using multispectral satellite datasets. The fields of sea surface temperature (SST), surface latent heat flux (LHF), net surface solar radiation (SW), precipitation (P), and SW − LHF over the Indian Ocean are analyzed to characterize the seasonal and interannual variability with special emphasis on the period 1988–90. It is shown that satellite data are able to make a significant contribution to the multiplatform strategy necessary to describe the large-scale spatial and temporal variability of air–sea interactions associated with the Indian Ocean Monsoon. The satellite data analyzed here has shown for the first time characteristics of the interannual variability of air–sea interactions over the entire Indian Ocean. Using monthly means of SST, LHF, SW, P, and the difference SW − LHF, the main features of the seasonal and interannual variability of air–sea interactions over the Indian Ocean are characterized. It is shown that the southwest monsoon strongly affects these interactions, inducing dramatic exchanges of heat between air and sea and large temporal variations of these exchanges over relatively small timescale (with regards to typical oceanic timescales). The analyses indicate an overall good agreement between satellite and in situ (ship) estimates, except in the southern Indian Ocean, where ship sampling is minimal, the disagreement can be large. In the latitudinal band of 10°N–15°S, differences in climatological in situ estimates of surface sensible heat flux and net longwave radiation has a larger influence on the net surface heat flux than the difference between satellite and in situ estimates of SW and LHF.

Fluid flow in and around a mud volcano field seaward of the Barbados accretionary wedge: Results from Manon cruise

A field of mud diapirs and mud volcanoes situated in the Barbados trench at 13°50′N and extending along an old oceanic fracture zone (Mercurus) was investigated during the Manon cruise using both surface ship and Nautile submersible sampling and measurements. The entire zone from 13°50′N up to 14°20′N has an anomalously high heat flow which implies that fluids are drained into it from a segment of the accretionary wedge a few hundred kilometers wide. Two structures interpreted as diatremes, Atalante and Cyclops, expell large amounts of water and methane. We propose that they were formed from the release of a light fluid when gas hydrates were dissociated in the sediment as the result of the circulation of warm fluid in the area. However they expell only a small fraction of the incoming fluid, implying that disperse flow is the dominant mode of expulsion in this area. The chemoautotrophic communities on the surface of the structures rely mostly on sulfides. Submersible observations, temperature measurements in the sediment, and the chemistry of the pore fluid indicate that convection of seawater occurs within the first few meters of sediment through high‐permeability channels, such as cemented carbonate conduits. We propose that this convection is driven by the density difference between the pore fluid and seawater, but fresh water released by the dissolution of shallow hydrates may also contribute. This shallow convection may be a frequent process in cold seep environments.

Influence of Shipping Container, Preservative, and Breed on Analysis of Milk Components of Shipped Samples

An average of 50 milk samples from Holsteins and 16 samples from Jersey cows were collected monthly for 11 mo and allocated to one of four treatments: 1) preserved with potassium dichromate and shipped in plastic bags, 2) preserved with bronopol and shipped in plastic bags, 3) preserved with potassium dichromate and shipped in plastic vials, and 4) preserved with bronopol and shipped in plastic vials. Samples were shipped to a DHIA laboratory for determination of milk fat, milk protein, and SCC. Samples shipped in vials preserved with bronopol were statistically higher in milk fat. Overall, milk fat was higher in samples shipped in vials than in those shipped in bags and in shipped samples preserved with bronopol than in those preserved with potassium dichromate. Milk protein was lower for samples shipped in vials than for those shipped in bags but was higher for samples preserved with bronopol than with potassium dichromate. Effects of containers and preservatives were not different for SCC. Overall, shipment of samples in plastic vials using bronopol as a preservative yielded the highest results for the analysis of milk fat, and milk protein and SCC.

Indicator Organism and pH Changes During Mussel and Oyster Distribution

Live oysters and mussels were shipped from the East Coast to several locations in the United States to survey the effects of distribution. Control samples were analyzed for aerobic plate count, total coliforms, fecal coliforms and shellfish pH, stored at 4 C, then compared with shipped samples. Bacterial counts were higher in summer than in spring for all products. No fecal coliforms were recovered from mussels. There was no seasonal or distribution effect on shellfish pH.

Non-availability of metals from an urban landfill in Virginia

ABSTRACTA toxicological assessment of a landfill, located in the Fort Darling Unit of Richmond National Battlefield Park (RICH), Virginia, was conducted from 1989 to 1992. After using acute and chronic toxicity tests, and priority pollutant analysis on shipped samples of water and sediments collected from a small unnamed tributary to the James River, and water collected from four monitoring wells constructed into the landfill, it was concluded that toxic conditions to aquatic life did not exist. For acute tests conducted on tributary water and sediments, three species of traditionally used aquatic organisms (Ceriodaphnia dubia, Pimphales promalas, Hyalella azteca) and one plant species (Latuca sativa) were used. For chronic tests conducted on tributary water, Ceriodaphnia dubia was used. Priority pollutant analyses of tributary water and sediments and water from monitoring wells in the landfill also did not reveal organic or inorganic chemicals at hazardous levels although metal concentrations in sediment...

The use of satellite imagery to direct research ship sampling operations

ABSTRACTOceanographic processes on the continental shelf adjacent to Vancouver Island are energetic, highly variable and dominated by eddies, upwelling jets and shelfbreak baroclinic instabilities. Consequently, areas of enhanced planktonic production are patchy and ever‐changing, making them difficult to study and map from ship. We have developed a technique for transmitting interpreted thermal AVHRR satellite imagery to research ships, where we use the imagery to direct CTD sampling lines, acoustic Doppler current profiling and deployment of drifting buoys. The AVHRR satellite images are geo‐referenced, masked and interpreted to produce a contoured sea surface temperature field in the area of interest. The contour field image is transferred between personal computers equipped with matching facsimile subsystems. The compressed image is transmitted via HF radio link or Inmarsat. The preprocessing of the image ashore provides for significant data compression and allows for operational use of the image to direct research of fishing within 12 h of the satellite pass.

Viabilidad del Vibrio cholerae O1 en el medio de transporte de Cary-Blair

During the recent outbreak of cholera in Colombia we tried to established the survival time of Vibrio cholera01 in Cary-Blair transport medium. The viability was determined during six weeks, in 53 samples kept in the laboratory at room temperature (23°C + 2) The recovery was 94% in the first week, and 89%, 87%, 83%, 81% respectively in the second, third, fourth and fifth weeks and 72% in the sixth week. Additionally, the recovery of v. cholerae O1 was directly dependent upon the amount of microorganisms present in the stool sample. Our results allowed us to select Cary-Blair transport medium as an ideal one for shipping samples to the reference center.

A comparison of ship and coastal zone color scanner mapped distribution of phytoplankton in the southeastern Bering Sea

We examined 21 Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) images of the southeastern Bering Sea to map the near‐surface distribution of phytoplankton during 1979 and 1980 and compared this information with the mesoscale (100–1000 km) distribution of phytoplankton inferred from ship sampling. Pigment patches coherent over length scales of about 1000 km along isobaths were detected in the satellite data. The patches straddled boundaries of hydrographic domains that were previously defined from the ship observations. Smaller patches (order of 100 km diameter and less) were common. The imagery indicated that open‐water phytoplankton blooms occur first in late April in coastal waters, peak in early May over the middle shelf, and decay rapidly afterwards, reaching concentration minima in June in both regions. These patters show that earlier ship observations are valid for most of the eastern Bering shelf. Images from August and September 1979 revealed the occurrence of fall blooms, previously unrecorded in this area perhaps because of scarce ship observations after summer. Interannual variation in the distribution of biomass was evident, with April–May 1979 showing less pigment near the surface than April–May 1980. These changes were in part related to aliased sampling by the CZCS. Also, the wind was downwelling favorable in late April 1979 but upwelling favorable during late April 1980. CZCS values underestimated the ship data by a factor of at least 2 during spring 1979. During spring of 1980 the CZCS and ship‐based data were similar. The apparent errors remain unexplained, but it appears that in particular time aliasing of the evolution of the blooms by the CZCS leads to serious problems in comparisons with ship time series. It also seems that region‐specific pigment algorithms are required for proper quantitative interpretation of remote sensing data from the Bering Sea.

Satellite detection of transient enhanced primary production in the western Mediterranean Sea

Primary production by marine microalgae is believed to be a critical factor regulating atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and associated climatic changes1. Assessments of photosynthesis in the open ocean2–4, and the related export of organic carbon to the deep ocean (new or non-regenerative production5–7, vary by as much as an order of magnitude (refs 2 and 6, compare with refs 3–5 and 7). Discrepancies are attributed4,6–8 to different temporal and spatial scales reflected by instantaneous rate measurements, as opposed to seasonally averaged measurements based on subsurface changes in chemical tracers. Satellite extrapolations of primary production can be used to characterize and quantify temporal and spatial variability9–11. But time differentials between satellite and ship measurements, as well as regional and seasonal variations in empirical relationships, have so far limited the precision of such extrapolations9,12. We conducted extensive ship sampling of chlorophyll a and primary production in the western Mediterranean Sea contemporaneous with Nimbus-7 coastal zone colour scanner imagery. Our approach resulted in an empirical model for estimating integrated water-column primary production from satellite imagery. Precision was adequate to resolve short-term fluctuations in primary production associated with a meso-scale circulation feature.

Time evolution of surface chlorophyll patterns from cross‐spectrum analysis of satellite color images

Sequences of coastal zone color scanner (CZCS) images from the offshore region adjacent to Vancouver Island, Canada, have been analyzed to estimate the time rate of decorrelation of surface phytoplankton chlorophyll pigment patterns. In these high‐latitude, high‐pigment areas, CZCS‐derived pigment estimates were lower than those obtained from ship samples by about a factor of 3, their frequency distributions were skewed in opposite directions, and subareas of the images often showed a discontinuity in the frequency distribution at a concentration of 1.5 mg m−3, where the algorithm changes CZCS bands. We selected cloud‐free subareas that were common to several images separated in time by 1–17 days. Image pairs were subjected to two‐dimensional auto spectrum and cross‐spectrum analysis in an array processor, and spectra of squared coherence were formed. The squared coherence estimates for several wave bands were plotted against time separation, in analogy with a time‐lagged cross correlation function. Threshold levels for significant coherence were estimated from many realizations of squared coherence calculated for pairs of synthetic random uncorrelated fields with specified power law behavior κ−1.5, near the observed range κ−1.5–κ−2. For wavelengths of 50–150 km, significant coherence is lost after 7–10 days, and for wavelengths of 25–50 km, significant coherence is lost after 5–7 days; in both cases offshore regions maintain coherence longer than coastal regions. For wavelengths of 12.5–25 km, only the offshore regions maintained coherence after 1 day, but that was clearly lost after the next time separation of 6 days. The implication for the formation of monthly average large‐scale surface maps to estimate open ocean productivity (e.g., Esaias et al., 1986) is that all mesoscale patterns (<150‐km length scale) will not be resolved.

Use of the SPA in assessing toxic effects on male fertilizing potential

The sperm penetration assay (SPA), which involves the use of zona-free hamster eggs to assess fertilizing potential of human spermatozoa, has the capability of evaluating the functional capacity of sperm. If men are exposed to a toxic insult that could result in impaired fertility, this has been monitored historically by determining the routine semen parameters of concentration, motility, and morphology. The lack of availability of the SPA for evaluating toxic exposure in field studies has hampered its utilization. The purpose of this article is to illustrate the use of the SPA in a specific field study and to describe to recent innovations in the SPA that make its use more accessible for field studies. These two innovations are shipping semen samples in TEST-yolk buffer by overnight express to a central laboratory for testing and using frozen hamster eggs in the test. The report is divided into the following three major sections: I. Kunia study; II. TEST-yolk buffer modifications of SPA; and III. Use of frozen eggs in SPA.

Multiplafform sampling (ship, aircraft, and satellite) of a Gulf Stream warm core ring

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the ability to meet the need to measure distributions of physical and biological properties of the ocean over large areas synoptically and over long time periods by means of remote sensing utilizing contemporaneous buoy, ship, aircraft, and satellite (i.e., multiplatform) sampling strategies. A mapping of sea surface temperature and chlorophyll fields in a Gulf Stream warm core ring using the multiplatform approach is described. Sampling capabilities of each sensing system are discussed as background for the data collected by means of these three dissimilar methods. Commensurate space/time sample sets from each sensing system are compared, and their relative accuracies in space and time are determined. The three-dimensional composite maps derived from the data set provide a synoptic perspective unobtainable from single platforms alone.

Design Studies for Climatological Measurements of Heat Storage

Abstract Objective analysis of large-scale simulated anomalies is used to estimate statistically the effectiveness of different sampling arrays. The methodology, which includes a new use of Bayesian inference, is of fairly general applicability, but is illustrated by a specific requirement to measure five-year changes in the North Atlantic to an accuracy equivalent to ±10 W m−2. The numerical procedure require 1) specification of an overall measure of accuracy on an appropriate resolution, 2) a reference field approximating the long-term mean, 3) an assumed ensemble of large-scale anomalies, 4) the distribution of mesoscale eddy noise as derived from previous analyses of historical data and 5) a set of ship tracks and a sampling, in space and time along them. The numerical output is the expected accuracy and other diagnostic information. The ship tracks and sampling are varied by trial and error until the expected accuracy is within requirements in an economical manner. The study indicates that the optimi...

Satellites for the study of ocean primary productivity

Estimates of global marine primary productivity are currently based upon the 14C method for determining rates of plankton photosynthesis and upon the relatively sparse data available using shipboard sampling techniques. With recent advances in remote sensing and in multiplatform (ship, aircraft, and satellite) sampling strategies, it is now possible to significantly lower the variance in estimates of phytoplankton abundance and of population growth rates. Multiplatform sampling strategies are essential to assess the mean and variance of phytoplankton biomass on a regional or on a global basis. The relative errors associated with shipboard and satellite estimates of phytoplankton biomass and primary productivity, as well as the increased statistical accuracy now possible from the utilization of contemporaneous data from both sampling platforms, are discussed. It is shown that one of the more exciting and potentially useful aspects of oceanographic research today is our new ability to view large areas of the ocean synoptically.

Correlation of primary production as measured aboard ship in Southern California Coastal waters and as estimated from satellite chlorophyll images

Chlorophyll images suitable for the regional analysis of the Southern California Bight were obtained by satellite (Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner) on 27 February, 6 March and 11 March 1979. An algorithm to convert satellite chlorophyll data to primary production has been developed. In addition, primary production was measured along with other biological and physical factors from ships cruising in the Southern California Bight during late February and early March 1979. There was fair agreement between shipboard measurements and satellite estimations; for example, primary production (mg carbon m-2 d-1) averaged 554 mg from shipboard measurement and 403 mg from satellite estimation when averaged for the entire Bight for the course of the study. The high standard error associated with the variance in productivity index used in our algorithm prevented more accurate conversion of chlorophyll concentrations into primary productivity. However, the synoptic data provided by concurrent ship and satellite measurements can be used to quantify, and perhaps reduce, sampling errors associated with ship sampling alone and to provide estimates of the accuracy of primary productivity on a regional basis.

A comparison of tropical oceanic heat fluxes determined by airborne eddy correlation and shipboard bulk aerodynamic techniques

Vertical turbulent transports of latent and sensible heat through the tropical marine boundary layer were measured with ship and airborne instruments in the GATE experimental area. The measurements from the two systems are compared for cases of simultaneous sampling in the same locations during undisturbed weather and during the wakes of convective disturbances. The paired average fluxes from the airborne eddy correlation measurements and the shipboard bulk aerodynamic measurements, for undisturbed weather, are related with correlation coefficients in the range of 0.6 to 0.9; the correlations depend primarily on stratifications of the aircraft data according to sampling altitude (15–153 m msl) and flight pattern relative to the mean wind. The agreement between the two types of measurements is best for ship data paired with aircraft samples from the lowest altitudes (15 and 30 m) and from alongwind rather than crosswind flights, as is appropriate since the stationary ships monitor the alongwind characteristics of the turbulence. The use of long (1–3 hr) versus short (10 min) ship samples did not significantly affect the comparability with the aircraft samples during undisturbed periods.

Correlation of predicted versus measured sound levels in naval surface ships

The U. S. Navy and U. S. Coast Guard have jointly sponsored the development of an airborne noise prediction procedure for military surface ships, which was published in a report entitled “Handbook for Shipboard Airborne Noise Control” dated 13 February 1974. This paper is based on a study aimed at verifying the “Handbook” prediction procedure by comparison with full-scale, shipboard measurements. The U. S. Navy Spruance Class Destroyer (DD 963) offered an excellent opportunity for making such comparison. During the design phase, predictive calculations of sound pressure levels were made for all manned spaces. During the trials period airborne noise measurements were made in these spaces. The paper compares predicted versus measured sound levels in a limited number of spaces and also examines the source sound power level prediction formulae against measured power levels for various types of machinery. On the basis of this one ship sampling, reasonably good correlation was demonstrated between the predicted and measured sound pressure levels.

THE EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PASSIVE TAGGING PROCEDURES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF CRUDE OIL SPILLED ON WATER

ABSTRACT Several off-the-shelf passive tagging techniques were used to evaluate the viability of Maine's Oil Conveyance Law to determine the origin of mystery oil spills. Duplicating the operating conditions of the law, ship's samples of all crude oil shipments received during a 15-day period at Portland Harbor were collected. Selected crude oils were subjected to weathering in 500-gallon tanks exposed to the outdoor ambient conditions of Portland, Maine. Subsamples of the weathering spill were taken at several intervals up to 15 days. Attempts were made to correctly match the weathered “unknown” to one of the collection of ships’ samples by passive tagging. Techniques employed included the comparison of gas chromatograms by several procedures, vanadium-nickel ratios, sulfur-nitrogen ratios, and infrared spectra. In a preliminary review of the data, successes and limitations are discussed.

Fluorometric analysts of glycolytic intermediates in human red blood cells

Methods for the fluorometric determination of glycolytic intermediates in red cells are described. Special attention was given to the technique used for drawing blood and producing filtrates. These factors were found to be very important, particularly with respect to FDP levels. Furthermore, to determine the feasibility of shipping samples, extracts were stored for 48 hr at different temperatures. No changes of the glycolytic intermediates were found when the PCA extracts after deproteinization were unneutralized and kept refrigerated or frozen.

Body Characteristics of Palm Warblers Following an Overwater Flight

ON the drizzly overcast afternoon of 24 October 1965 approximately 35 small birds landed aboard the U. S. Coast Guard Cutter Hollyhock between 1400 and 1800 hours. The ship's position was 76? 20' N, 210 40' W, or some 10 to 20 miles off the northeast coast of Cuba. Among the birds landing on the ship were 27 western Palm Warblers (Dendroica p. palmarum) that were captured and frozen by J. C. Dickinson, Jr. and Neil Payne of the Florida State Museum. These specimens, ultimately given to the author, provided needed data relating to bioenergetics of avian flight, fat deposits, and fat utilization. The geographic position, prevailing winds, and season indicated that the birds were on the verge of completing an extended overwater flight from the north. This appears to be the first unequivocal postflight sample of birds available for detailed fat studies, because samples heretofore reported in the literature as presumed postflight birds contained individuals that might have been aground for some time prior to collection (Odum, 1960; Odum et al., 1964; Kuroda, 1964; Johnston and McFarlane, 1966). Unfortunately, because of the geographic location of the ship sample, it is impossible to state precisely where the overwater flight originated. These birds could have come directly from southern Florida or from any points along the Atlantic seaboard, perhaps via the Bahama Islands. Nonetheless, comparing body weights, fat quantities, and other characteristics of the ship sample with similar data from migrating Palm Warblers collected at Florida television towers during fall migration should help to clarify certain problems relating to flight bioenergetics and fat utilization.