Shifts In Social Norms Research Articles

Family Economics Writ Large

Powerful currents have reshaped the structure of families over the last century. There has been (1) a dramatic drop in fertility and greater parental investment in children; (2) a rise in married female labor-force participation; (3) a significant decline in marriage; (4) a higher degree of positive assortative mating; (5) more children living with a single mother; and (6) shifts in social norms governing premarital sex and married women’s roles in the workplace. Macroeconomic models explaining these aggregate trends are surveyed. The relentless flow of technological progress and its role in shaping family life are stressed. (JEL D13, J12, J13, J16, J22, O33, Z13)

Ability of HIV Advocacy to Modify Behavioral Norms and Treatment Impact: A Systematic Review

Background. HIV advocacy programs are partly responsible for the global community’s success in reducing the burden of HIV. The rising wave of the global burden of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) has prompted the World Health Organization to espouse NCD advocacy efforts as a possible preventive strategy. HIV and NCDs share some similarities in their chronicity and risky behaviors, which are their associated etiology. Therefore, pooled evidence on the effectiveness of HIV advocacy programs and ideas shared could be replicated and applied during the conceptualization of NCD advocacy programs. Such evidence, however, has not been systematically reviewed to address the effectiveness of HIV advocacy programs, particularly programs that aimed at changing public behaviors deemed as risk factors. Objectives. To determine the effectiveness of HIV advocacy programs and draw lessons from those that are effective to strengthen future noncommunicable disease advocacy programs. Search methods. We searched for evidence regarding the effectiveness of HIV advocacy programs in medical databases: PubMed, The Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature Plus, Educational Resources and Information Center, and Web of Science, with articles dated from 1994 to 2014. Search criteria. The review protocol was registered before this review. The inclusion criteria were studies on advocacy programs or interventions. We selected studies with the following designs: randomized controlled design studies, pre–post intervention studies, cohorts and other longitudinal studies, quasi-experimental design studies, and cross-sectional studies that reported changes in outcome variables of interest following advocacy programs. We constructed Boolean search terms and used them in PubMed as well as other databases, in line with a population, intervention, comparator, and outcome question. The flow of evidence search and reporting followed the standard Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines. Data collection and analysis. We selected 2 outcome variables (i.e., changing social norms and a change in impact) out of 6 key outcomes of advocacy interventions. We assessed the risk of bias for all selected studies by using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized studies and using the Risk of Bias for Nonrandomized Observational Studies for observational studies. We did not grade the collective quality of evidence because of differences between the studies, with regard to methods, study designs, and context. Moreover, we could not carry out meta-analyses because of heterogeneity and the diverse study designs; thus, we used a narrative synthesis to report the findings. Main results. A total of 25 studies were eligible, of the 1463 studies retrieved from selected databases. Twenty-two of the studies indicated a shift in social norms as a result of HIV advocacy programs, and 3 indicated a change in impact. We drew 6 lessons from these programs that may be useful for noncommunicable disease advocacy: (1) involving at-risk populations in advocacy programs, (2) working with laypersons and community members, (3) working with peer advocates and activists, (4) targeting specific age groups and asking support from celebrities, (5) targeting several, but specific, risk factors, and (6) using an evidence-based approach through formative research. Author conclusions. HIV advocacy programs have been effective in shifting social norms and facilitating a change in impact. Public health implications. The lessons learned from these effective programs could be used to improve the design and implementation of future noncommunicable disease advocacy programs.

Ability of HIV Advocacy to Modify Behavioral Norms and Treatment Impact: A Systematic Review.

HIV advocacy programs are partly responsible for the global community's success in reducing the burden of HIV. The rising wave of the global burden of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) has prompted the World Health Organization to espouse NCD advocacy efforts as a possible preventive strategy. HIV and NCDs share some similarities in their chronicity and risky behaviors, which are their associated etiology. Therefore, pooled evidence on the effectiveness of HIV advocacy programs and ideas shared could be replicated and applied during the conceptualization of NCD advocacy programs. Such evidence, however, has not been systematically reviewed to address the effectiveness of HIV advocacy programs, particularly programs that aimed at changing public behaviors deemed as risk factors. To determine the effectiveness of HIV advocacy programs and draw lessons from those that are effective to strengthen future noncommunicable disease advocacy programs. We searched for evidence regarding the effectiveness of HIV advocacy programs in medical databases: PubMed, The Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature Plus, Educational Resources and Information Center, and Web of Science, with articles dated from 1994 to 2014. Search criteria. The review protocol was registered before this review. The inclusion criteria were studies on advocacy programs or interventions. We selected studies with the following designs: randomized controlled design studies, pre-post intervention studies, cohorts and other longitudinal studies, quasi-experimental design studies, and cross-sectional studies that reported changes in outcome variables of interest following advocacy programs. We constructed Boolean search terms and used them in PubMed as well as other databases, in line with a population, intervention, comparator, and outcome question. The flow of evidence search and reporting followed the standard Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines. We selected 2 outcome variables (i.e., changing social norms and a change in impact) out of 6 key outcomes of advocacy interventions. We assessed the risk of bias for all selected studies by using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized studies and using the Risk of Bias for Nonrandomized Observational Studies for observational studies. We did not grade the collective quality of evidence because of differences between the studies, with regard to methods, study designs, and context. Moreover, we could not carry out meta-analyses because of heterogeneity and the diverse study designs; thus, we used a narrative synthesis to report the findings. A total of 25 studies were eligible, of the 1463 studies retrieved from selected databases. Twenty-two of the studies indicated a shift in social norms as a result of HIV advocacy programs, and 3 indicated a change in impact. We drew 6 lessons from these programs that may be useful for noncommunicable disease advocacy: (1) involving at-risk populations in advocacy programs, (2) working with laypersons and community members, (3) working with peer advocates and activists, (4) targeting specific age groups and asking support from celebrities, (5) targeting several, but specific, risk factors, and (6) using an evidence-based approach through formative research. Author conclusions. HIV advocacy programs have been effective in shifting social norms and facilitating a change in impact. The lessons learned from these effective programs could be used to improve the design and implementation of future noncommunicable disease advocacy programs.

Push, don't nudge: How progressives should use the state to advance social change

Helen McCarthy explores the synergies that exist between strong policy reforms and softer ‘nudge’ approaches to attitudinal change. As in the case of same‐sex marriages, she says, governmental action can at once both reflect and entrench shifts in social norms and behaviours.

“Woman” in the European Human Rights System: How is the Reproductive Rights Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights Constructing Narratives of Women’s Citizenship?

Abstract Reproductive rights are constructed through a gender-conscious reading of already recognized human rights. We argue that despite increasingly strong recognition of reproductive rights in international human rights law by treaty-monitoring bodies and international tribunals, jurisprudence of European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR or the Court) reflects a limited understanding of women's experiences, does not adequately challenge gender stereotypes, and often ignores reproductive rights dimensions in standards it is setting, as well as narratives it is creating. Our analysis of Court's jurisprudence on abortion, home birth, non-consensual gynecological examinations, forced sterilizations, and assisted reproduction reveals that a woman's reproductive capacity continues to be her defining feature. Motherhood is seen as a woman's default life plan, her decisions regarding her body, health, and ultimately life, are perpetually under scrutiny and contours of her agency subject to medical professionals ' views, legislators and general public. INTRODUCTION In her much-celebrated novel The Handmaid's Tale, Margaret Atwood created a society where women's function was reduced to breeding, and those who failed or tried to escape from this labor were labeled as Unwomen and punished. (1) Atwood's 1985 book may have been science fiction, but story she tells is distressingly not too dissimilar from women's stories in twenty-first century--even in what is known as most progressive of regions: Europe. Indeed, when we study how woman has been constructed in human rights system that was founded upon European Convention on Human Rights (hereafter, the Convention), we find disturbingly essentialist gender roles. The ECtHR is judicial forum of most established regional human rights system in world, grounded in norms of European Convention on Human Rights. The Court's decisions are binding upon forty-seven member states of Council of Europe, and are implemented through domestic legislation and regulations. Moreover, ECtHR's jurisprudence is regularly looked to and cited by other regional tribunals, treaty-monitoring bodies that adjudicate cases, and domestic courts. (2) Thus, ECtHR sets standards in human rights law both within and beyond Europe and presents an important construction site for rights narratives, including reproductive rights narratives. As questions around women's reproductive health are often deeply contested, ECtHR arguably has an especially important role to play in fostering public learning regarding reproductive rights as integral to full participation of women in European society. Indeed, we argue in this Article that by using law to publicly and authoritatively proclaim and transform unacknowledged harmful experience into legally cognizable wrongs requiring redress, Court could play a potentially transformative role in narratives of women's citizenship in European context. (3) The Court has decided a number of cases concerning matters of human reproduction (for example, restrictive abortion laws and access to in vitro fertilization). Nevertheless, ECtHR itself has neither referred to reproductive rights as human rights (and accordingly forming a part of Convention) nor specified that cases about reproduction entail questions of reproductive and decisional autonomy that go beyond private sphere and could entail needed shifts in social norms as well as institutional practices. Through examining how Court has addressed specific issues relating to reproduction, we reflect on what ECtHR's jurisprudence tells us about narratives of women's identity and citizenship in Europe more broadly. Based on a systematic review of Court's jurisprudence from 2003 to 2015, we consider nineteen cases that Court has decided regarding issues of reproductive freedoms and entitlements: four abortion cases, (4) two cases concerning home birth, (5) six cases about assisted reproduction, (6) three forced sterilization cases, (7) three forced gynecological examination cases, (8) and one landmark domestic violence decision. …

Managing Conflicts in Urban Communities: Youth Attitudes Regarding Gun Violence.

Gun violence remains a pressing public health concern, especially in high-risk urban environments. Community-level violence intervention efforts are being mounted in cities across the United States to prevent and reduce the most severe forms of violence. There is growing evidence to suggest the effectiveness of the Safe Streets Program/ Cure Violence as a community-based intervention to reduce homicides and shootings. The mechanism underlying the reductions in community violence is theorized to be linked with changes in attitudes toward violence as well as shifts in social norms related to violence and retaliation, but there are few tools to assess these domains. This preliminary investigation sought to establish the metric properties of the Survey on Attitudes About Guns and Shootings (SAGAS) with the goal of providing an empirical measure of attitudes and community-level norms. Males aged 18 to 24 were surveyed using the SAGAS in two high-violence communities in Baltimore, Maryland, using street intercept methodology. We found acceptable reliability and validity metrics for the SAGAS. Reliability and validity of the SAGAS were assessed using internal consistency and a latent class analysis with violent behavior outcomes. The internal consistency of the total scale was in the extensive range (α = .70-.79) and the internal consistency of the factors was in the exemplary range (α ≥ .80). In addition, latent classes of attitudes were predictive of being arrested or being shot. Future studies will examine if rates of violence decrease in neighborhoods targeted by the Safe Streets Program and the mediating role of attitudes toward gun violence using the SAGAS.

Being well-liked predicts increased use of alcohol but not tobacco in early adolescence

Although substance use has traditionally been linked to peer deviance, a parallel literature has explored the influence of peer social status (being “well-liked”). This literature hypothesizes that adolescents with higher status will anticipate shifts in social norms and modify their behavior earlier and/or more substantially than lower-status students. As substance use becomes more socially acceptable during early-to-mid-adolescence, higher status youth are hypothesized to reflect this shift in norms by accelerating their use more rapidly than lower status youth. Although some evidence exists to support this hypothesis, it has never been evaluated in conjunction with the opposing hypothesis (i.e., that substance use contributes to elevated peer status). In this study, we evaluated reciprocal links between peer status and substance use (i.e., alcohol and tobacco) using 3years of data from 8 middle schools in the Pacific Northwest. Social network analysis enabled us to model standard network effects along with unique effects for the influence of the network on behavior (i.e., increased substance use as a result of being well-liked) and the influence of behavior on the network (i.e., increased status as a result of substance use). Our results indicated significant bidirectional effects for alcohol use but no significant effects for tobacco use. In other words, being well-liked significantly predicted alcohol use and vice versa, but these processes were not significant for tobacco use. Prevention efforts should consider the dynamics of peer status and peer norms in adolescence with the goal of preventing escalations in problem behavior that can compromise future adjustment.

PERUBAHAN SOSIAL PADA PETANI KELAPA (Studi kasus Petani Kelapa di Desa Senduk, Kecamatan Tombariri)

The purpose of this study was to determine how social changes in the lives of coconut farmers in the village Senduk over the last 10 years. This study uses a case study. Data collected in the form of primary data and secondary data. Primary data was collected by means of in-depth interviews on 20 respondents who are coconut farmers. The primary data is regarding the farmer characteristics and the occuring of social change process. While secondary data such as population growth comes from the Senduk village office. Primary data were analyzed descriptively. The research results showed that social change in the form of social order has been a shift. In this case the shift in social norms that lead to behavioral changes in Senduk coconut farmers in the village. The results showed that social change in the form of social order has been a shift. In this case the shift in social norms that lead to behavioral changes in society Senduk coconut farmers in the village. Likewise, there has been a change in people's lifestyles, people are more likely to implement a consumptive lifestyle. Coupled with the influx of new technologies have led to reduce a directly social interaction and also farmers began to abandon their traditions. Population growth that occurred over the last 10 years has led to an increase in density which in turn leads to the village of Senduk government should expand the area of ​​new settlements. The expansion of residential areas has an impact on agricultural land with the narrowing of agricultural land due to the transfer of use of agricultural land to residential land.

Pamela Fox. Natural Acts: Gender, Race, and Rusticity in Country Music

Pamela Fox. 2009. Natural Acts: Gender, Race, and Rusticity in Country Music. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. What constitutes authenticity in country music? Artists' claims to realness might be based on the sincerity of their performances, rural upbringing, or working-class credentials. Authenticity in country music is often established via the performance of rusticity--a performance is deemed authentic if it is unrefined and unsophisticated, if the performer is acting naturally. It is also the case, however, that factors such as changing economies, migrations, and contemporaneous shifts in social norms and hierarchies all contribute to varied definitions of authenticity and those definitions change over time. In Natural Acts: Gender, Race, and Rusticity in Country Music, Pamela Fox shows some of country's natural are predicated on complex and changing definitions of authenticity produced and circulated by artists, listeners, critics, and the country music broadcast and recording industries. Through her astute analysis of several country archetypes and modes of performance, Fox demonstrates gender and race, in addition to class, have informed these notions of authenticity in country music over the course of the twentieth century. As Fox explores how the uneven coalescence of gender, class, and race positionalities fuels country's claims to authenticity and its concomitant performative (4), the chronologically and often conceptually distinct musical subjects of the book come together to form alternative history of country authenticity as a gendered and racialized class (11). Fox focuses primarily on four phases/performative models within country: blackface and hillbilly comedy acts that appeared side-by-side in early twentieth century barn dance programs, post-war honky-tonk and the answer songs of female honky-tonk performers, memoirs of women country stars, and the alt.country (alternative country) movement of recent decades. Fox's critical approach is informed by multiple theories of gender, race, and class; the result of applying her approach to this variety of subjects is an insightful, multi-faceted history of the construction of country authenticity, one that recognizes the compound influences contributing to the formation of the notion of country authenticity over time. Fox's scholarly background is in literary and cultural studies and feminist theory, with a focus on working-class literature and culture. Tier prior publications include work on female country star autobiographies and women in alt.country, and this book represents a deeper investigation of the historically racialized and gendered elements of authenticity construction that continue to influence these more recent developments in country music culture. As she delves into the different performative models of each chapter, Fox analyzes radio scripts, song lyrics, memoirs, and publicity materials, employing feminist theory, contemporary scholarship on blackface minstrelsy, and cultural materialist theory to flesh out her approach. A large portion of her book focuses on women in country music, and Fox is indebted to the feminist country music scholars who precede her, namely Mary Bufwack and Robert Oermann, Joli Jensen, Barbara Ching, Kristine McCusker, and Diane Pecknold. (1) She is primarily interested, however, in not only recognizing gender as a significant dynamic of country music culture, but in moving beyond basic identity politics to examine the intersection of race, class, and gender at various moments in country music history. Employing a framework devised by sociologist Joan Acker, Fox investigates racialized and gendered practices embedded in a class structure governed by white middle-to-upper-class men yet almost exclusively associated with Southern white rustic or working-class imagery, lowbrow cultural taste, and artists who convincingly represent both in their personal histories (6). …

Generational shift in parental perceptions of overweight among school-aged children.

Parental perceptions of child's weight status may influence family readiness to foster healthy behaviors. This study investigated the generational shifting of parental perceptions about children's weight. Data were collected in the NHANES 1988-1994 (n = 2871) and 2005-2010 (n = 3202). Parents, mainly mothers, were asked whether they considered their child, ages 6 to 11 years, to be overweight, underweight, or just about the right weight. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2000 growth chart was used for reference. We ran Poisson regression to estimate the probability ratio between the 2 surveys for parents perceiving their child as overweight after controlling for actual weight. The 10th percentile of BMI z scores for children who were parentally perceived as overweight shifted with statistical significance from 84th percentile of reference population in the early survey to 91st percentile of reference population in the recent survey (P < .05). The mean z score of children parentally perceived as overweight also increased between surveys with the largest increase among children from poor families (from 1.60 [SE: 0.20] to 1.98 [0.08], P < .05), followed by African Americans (from 1.65 [0.09] to 2.02 [0.05], P < .05). The probability of overweight/obese children being correctly perceived as overweight by the parents declined by 24% between surveys (probability ratio = 0.76 [95% confidence interval: 0.67-0.87]). Overweight/obese children were less likely to be perceived as overweight in the recent survey compared with peers of similar weight but surveyed 10+ years earlier. The declining tendency among parents to perceive overweight children appropriately may indicate a generational shift in social norms related to body weight.

A Systems-Based Typological Framework for Understanding the Sustainability, Scalability, and Reach of Childhood Obesity Interventions

This article proposes a systems-based framework to examine 3 structural dimensions of childhood obesity interventions that can impact intervention sustainability, scalability, and reach. These 3 dimensions are the locus of intervention drivers (top-down vs. bottom-up), the locus of change effected (policy vs. individual behavior), and the public versus private sector. Interventions focused on individual behavior change often rely on bottom-up approaches and have generally been less sustainable than policy interventions. However, top-down (government or industry) support can lead to better funding and shifts in social norms. In the public sector, top-down efforts targeting individual behavior are generally also more scalable and have wider reach to diverse communities. In the private sector, behavior-change interventions tend to have greater resources and are sustained over longer periods, even when efficacy is in question; they may also be quite scalable. In a systems approach, a combination of approaches that encompass the structural dimensions in systems space will likely be needed to significantly impact childhood obesity. Next-generation childhood obesity interventions should be able to demonstrate sustainability, scalability, and reach as benchmarks of plausible success and criteria for investment.

Combination prevention: a deeper understanding of effective HIV prevention

Evidence-informed and human rights-based combination prevention combines behavioural, biomedical, and structural interventions to address both the immediate risks and underlying causes of vulnerability to HIV infection, and the pathways that link them. Because these are context-specific, no single prescription or standard package will apply universally. Anchored in 'know your epidemic' estimates of where the next 1000 infections will occur and 'know your response' analyses of resource allocation and programming gaps, combination prevention strategies seek to realign programme priorities for maximum effect to reduce epidemic reproductive rates at local, regional, and national levels. Effective prevention means tailoring programmes to local epidemics and ensuring that components are delivered with the intensity, quality, and scale necessary to achieve intended effects. Structural interventions, addressing the social, economic, cultural, and legal constraints that create HIV risk environments and undermine the agency of individuals to protect themselves and others, are also public goods in their own right. Applying the principles of combination prevention systematically and consistently in HIV programme planning, with due attention to context, can increase HIV programme effectiveness. Better outcome and impact measurement using multiple methods and data triangulation can build the evidence base on synergies between the components of combination prevention at individual, group, and societal levels, facilitating iterative knowledge translation within and among programmes.

From “Overweight” to “About Right”: Evidence of a Generational Shift in Body Weight Norms

In this article, we describe differences in the self-perception of weight status in the United States between the two most recent National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) periods (1988-1994 and 1999-2004), and test the hypothesis that secular increases in adult mean BMI, adult obesity, and childhood obesity contributed to changes over time in weight perceptions. We find that the probability of self-classifying as overweight is significantly lower on average in the more recent survey, for both women and men, controlling for objective weight status and other factors. Among women, the decline in the tendency to self-classify as overweight is concentrated in the 17-35 age range, and is more pronounced among women with normal BMI than those with overweight BMI. Among men, the shift away from feeling overweight is roughly equal across age groups. Overweight men exhibit a sharper decline in feeling overweight than normal weight men. Despite the declines in feeling overweight between surveys, weight misperception did not increase significantly for men and decreased by a sizable margin among women. We interpret the findings as evidence of a generational shift in social norms related to body weight. As a result, people may be less likely to desire weight loss than previously, limiting the effectiveness of public health campaigns aimed at weight reduction. On the other hand, there may be health benefits associated with improved body image.

Childhood Obesity: The New Tobacco

Overcoming the childhood obesity epidemic will require changes on the scale of a social movement similar to the shift in attitudes and regulations toward smoking and tobacco. Tobacco control became a successful public health movement because of shifts in social norms and because cigarette companies came to be perceived by many as a common enemy. In contrast, obesity advocates have not identified a common threat or mobilized grass-roots change, nor have they identified strategies that resonate across diverse settings and constituencies. Framing obesity as a common threat can lead to consensus regarding the interventions needed to achieve healthier children and communities.

Has Overweight Become the New Normal?: Evidence of a Generational Shift in Body Weight Norms

We test for differences across the two most recent NHANES survey periods (1988-1994 and 1999-2004) in self-perception of weight status. We find that the probability of self-classifying as overweight is significantly lower on average in the more recent survey, for both men and women, controlling for objective weight status and other factors. Among women, the decline in the tendency to self-classify as overweight is concentrated in the 17-35 age range, and, within this range, is more pronounced among women with normal BMI than among those with overweight BMI. Among men, the shift away from feeling overweight is roughly equal across age groups, except that the oldest group (56-74) exhibits no difference between surveys. In addition, overweight men exhibit a sharper decline in feeling overweight than normal-weight men. Despite the declines in feeling overweight between surveys, weight misperception did not increase significantly for men and decreased by a sizable margin among women. The shifts in self-classification are not explained by differences between surveys in body fatness or waist circumference, nor by shifting demographics. We interpret the findings as evidence of a generational shift in social norms related to body weight, and propose various mechanisms to explain such a shift, including: (1) higher average adult BMI and adult obesity rates in the later survey cohort, (2) higher childhood obesity rates in the later survey cohort, and (3) public education campaigns promoting healthy body image. The welfare implications of the observed trends in self-classification are mixed.

Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education, 1965–1975

In the late 1960s and early 1970s the gender divide in American higher education narrowed rapidly as women shifted their aims from homemaking to careers. The dynamic-social-norms hypothesis explains why we observe unexpected and rapid rather than gradual change in women’s education and employment. The explanation draws on a theory of social change developed by Timur Kuran that predicts revolutionary rather than incremental shifts in social norms. Critical to the argument is the claim that in some settings the choices of individuals depend in part on the choices of others. In the presence of interdependencies, the potential exists for unexpected and rapid transformations, such as that occurring in higher education between 1965 and 1975.

The Good Life: A Holistic Approach to the Health of the Population

The idea of a holistic approach towards public health planning presented itself through a food-related and trivial curiosity. It is, however, emphasized that food and nutrition are only one aspect of public health. The aim is to reintroduce a holistic approach to achieve sustainable public health with emphasis on the interpretation of the term “holistic”. Holistic decision making is not a new phenomenon and has historical basis. In line with shifts in social norms, decision making has evolved. In particular, various complex models for public health have been proposed to respond to ever-increasing health issues. The advancement in mathematical sciences and technology has led to the quantification of health models. However, mathematical representations pose a major limitation on the holistic approach. Due to its evolutionary nature, human health is dynamically related to social, environmental, and other processes. With the current knowledge, it is difficult to quantify the evolution and feedback effects in holistic models. In this paper, the individual's and public's health is viewed as a dynamic process, but not independent of other dynamic processes (e.g., agriculture, economy, politics) that are all part of a much bigger process. Furthermore, it is argued that it is not merely sufficient to account for all known factors to be holistic. In this paper, the holistic conceptual model is illustrated, using public health as the central issue. The application of the conceptual model is also discussed using two practical examples.

The meanings of smoking among Chinese American and Taiwanese American college students.

Smoking on college campuses in the United States has increased at an alarming rate since the early 1980s. Smoking rates differ according to students' culture/ethnicity and are linked to levels of acculturation. Little is known concerning the determinants of smoking in college populations. To develop effective smoking interventions targeting college smoking, an understanding of why these populations are taking up tobacco is vital. The meanings with which adolescents imbue smoking have been related to smoking behaviors in adolescent populations. Meanings of particular behaviors are strongly influenced by cultural background and acculturation. Meanings of smoking have not yet been investigated in culturally diverse college-aged populations. This in-depth qualitative investigation examined the meanings of smoking among Chinese and Taiwanese students, who are among the fastest growing populations on U.S. college campuses. These groups were selected to attempt to trace why Asian American students are at higher risk for increased smoking prevalence than any other ethnic group. Personal, functional, and socially relevant meanings emerged as powerful factors that direct smoking behaviors. Because smoking is not accepted as readily in the United States as it is in China and Taiwan, subjects reported experiencing a profound shift in social norms after immigration, which led to a change in meanings of smoking. These changes in meanings precipitated changes in smoking behavior. Smokers reported reducing tobacco use or quitting altogether. Implications of these findings as they relate to patterns of smoking in Chinese American and Taiwanese American populations are discussed.

Snus and the public's health: a reply to some comments

<i>Snus</i> and the public's health: a reply to some comments

The Evolution of Considerate Smoking Behavior

This paper studies the formation of social norms for considerate smoking behavior. Being considerate gives smokers a higher social approval from non-smokers, but imposes an inconvenience cost. A non-smoker's disapproval of inconsiderate smoking is assumed to be stronger the less used he is to being exposed to passive smoking. The analysis shows that introduction of a smoking regulation may move the society from an initial no-consideration Nash equilibrium to a Nash equilibrium in which every smoker is considerate, even in the unregulated zone. This crowding in of considerate behavior will prevail even after policy reversal. Empirical evidence confirms that a shift in social norms on considerate smoking has taken place in Norway after the smoking law amendments in 1988, and supports the plausibility of model assumptions.