Shell Nouns Research Articles

‘These results are inconsistent’

Abstract Shell nouns (SNs; e.g., fact and problem) are an open group of abstract nouns defined functionally through use as emergent ‘shells’ referencing and labeling ideas in surrounding discourse. This paper analyzes the ‘this/these + [SN]’ pattern in second language (L2) English Master’s theses and published English research articles (RAs) across three Engineering disciplines (Electrical, Mechanical, Chemical), with a secondary focus on unattended ‘this/these’ use and disciplinary variation. The corpus includes 60 RAs per discipline (840,683 words) and 25 Master’s theses per discipline (899,182 words). Corpus methods were used to support manual identification of ‘this/these + [SN]’. Results show that L2 English Master’s thesis writers used this pattern significantly less than writers of RAs. Normalized frequencies, frequent SNs, and functional patterns are also presented across genres and disciplines. L2 writers and experts use a similar range of SN types, and expert writers adopt a more rhetorically sophisticated means of organizing information.

A Corpus Study of Shell Nouns as Cohesive Devices in Chinese and Native Student Writing

A Corpus Study of Shell Nouns as Cohesive Devices in Chinese and Native Student Writing

Comparison of the Use of Shell Nouns in English Chemical Journals by Chinese and English Scholars: A Corpus-Based Study

Comparison of the Use of Shell Nouns in English Chemical Journals by Chinese and English Scholars: A Corpus-Based Study

Linguistic and pragmatic ways of committing oneself

Abstract In this study I focus on the complementation patterns of commissive shell nouns in Ghanaian English (GhE). Commissive shell nouns are a type of illocutionary shell noun, i.e. a noun that encapsulates a content that is usually expressed in a complement or even separate clause or sentence thereby ascribing it an illocutionary force. I use the usage-based approach to the study of language and investigate the behavioral profile of these nouns in GhE. I apply descriptive statistics to data that have been collected from the Corpus of Global Web-based English (GloWbE). The study provides evidence for the characterization of GhE usage norms, and thus contributes to the scholarly knowledge on this variety of English. It also sheds light on the contribution that the meaning-related and ultimately cognitive perspective can offer in describing the complementation patterns of illocutionary nouns in Postcolonial Englishes (PCEs).

A Corpus-based Study on Shell Nouns in “N + that” Construction in Popular Science Discourse: Rachel Carson’s Works as Example

By adopting the corpus-based approach, the present study compares the frequency of use, semantic distribution, and stance expression of shell nouns in the “N + that” clause in popular science discourse compared with academic writing. The results show that, firstly, the frequency of use of shell nouns in the “N + that” clause in popular science is lower than that in academic discourse. Secondly, the semantic coverage of shell nouns in popular science discourse is smaller than that in academic discourse, but its semantic proportion distribution is roughly the same, mainly including mental and linguistic shell nouns. Thirdly, in popular science discourse and academic discourse, the proportion of shell nouns with epistemic stances occupies an absolute advantage, while the proportion of shell nouns with attitudinal stances is less. The proportion of shell nouns expressing attitudinal stance in popular science discourse is greater than that in academic discourse.

SHELL NOUNS IN ACADEMIC DISCOURSE: A CORPUS STUDY OF THE RESEARCH MEDICAL ARTICLE IN BULGARIAN AND ENGLISH

The focus of the article is the research medical article, which is the academic genre heavyweight and whose structure serves as the mainframe of all other genre forms. One of its most important characteristics, playing at the same time a significant role in the field of discourse, are shell nouns. The latter are such a category of tokens, which with their schematic semantic structure, take reference meaning from the context. Shell words are convenient for the process of naming, as they first come to mind in an onomasiological task. The study is based on an analysis of two large corpora of research medical articles from prestigious Bulgarian and English-language publications, respectively. The article compares the use at semantic-syntactic level of the most common shell nouns in the studied corpora. As is to be expected, the most frequently used shell words belong to the so-called “mental” class. The word “analysis” is used most often in both corpora with “method” in the English corpus and “moment” in the Bulgarian corpus taking second place, respectively. Understanding the importance of the role of shell nouns in scientific medical texts has to do not only with hedging, but also with the semantics of the relation abstract-concrete, the indicators of cohesion and coherence, allowing to study the textual construction in the light of theme and rheme relations.

Czech instrumentals as shell nouns in L2 pedagogy

Using shell nouns is to facilitate efficiency by avoiding the repetition of long stretches of text (Kolhatkar & Hirst, 2014: 499), and to organize discourse in maintaining its coherence (Schmid, 2000; Flowerdew, 2003a). Identifying such coherence can be helpful for language users and learners in effectively expressing themselves, summarizing text, and retrieving information (Flowerdew, 2003b; Hinkel, 2004). According to Lin (2023), the instrumental case-marking is regarded as a Czech language-specific strategy for the use of shell nouns. As the field of language teaching and learning particularly focuses on the importance of using shell nouns (Schmid, 2018: 123), this study analyzes and discusses Czech shell nouns from the perspective of second language pedagogy. The aim is to investigate how Czech instrumentals are used as shell nouns in L2 data, based on learner corpora from CzeSL-SGT and LCSL. The results show that Czech instrumentals are used less frequently on average in learner corpora than in L1 data. In addition, there are very limited construction patterns of shell nouns used by these learners, and the average distribution of shell noun instrumentals is low. At the end of this study, specific pedagogy strategies derived from the discussion are presented, followed by proposed didactic instructions with a focus on the L1 Chinese learners. To sum up, from the perspective of L2 pedagogy, this study highlights that the appropriate use of Czech instrumentals as shell nouns can enhance Czech writing performance in text organization, as well as reading ability in information tracing and text summarization for learners of Czech.

Difference of Sino-US National Image Construction Seen from the Use of Shell Nouns: Illustrated by News Reports on the COVID-19 Pandemic

This research examines the national image reflected in the use of shell nouns in Chinese and American news reports about the COVID-19 pandemic. Using a self-established corpus, more than 60 Chinese and 80 American news reports have been analyzed. With a focus on the stance expression of shell nouns, this study reveals the following: (1) In the use of Entity shell nouns, Chinese news reports tend to use Event nouns, measure(s), and Cognition nouns, such as vision, whereas American news reports prefer using nouns like effort(s) to convey negative information; (2) in the use of Attribute shell nouns, Chinese news reports tend to use positive evaluative nouns and Ability nouns, while American news reports prefer negative evaluative nouns and less use of Ability nouns. The research findings demonstrate China’s global view and efforts to combat the pandemic, reflecting its national image of assuming responsibility, contributing, being ready to help neighboring countries, and being open and inclusive. In contrast, American news reports present a negative national image of lack of effort in the pandemic, shirking responsibility, chaos within its government, and disregard for people’s lives.

‘Wonder’ Nouns and the Development of a Mirative Constructional Network: An Exercise in Semiotic Diachronic Construction Grammar

AbstractThis paper discusses the emergence and development of a mirative constructional network involving the shell nounswonder,marvelandchance, called ‘wonder’ nouns here. In combination with negative quantifiers (e.g.no wonder), they can be used either lexically or as part of grammatical, mirative markers, qualifying a proposition as unsurprising in view of another situation. The network emerges in Old English aroundwonder, with three meso-constructions which differ in surface structure but all inherit the anti-concessive discourse schema from the macro-construction, consisting of a proposition, mirative qualifier and justification. Two additional meso-constructions emerge in Middle English, which is also the time when the Romance loanmarveljoins the network, making it gain in schematicity, abstractness and productivity. In Present-day English, another Romance loan,chance, expands the mirative network even more. Throughout time, we observe node loss, node creation, constructional substitution and changes in frequencies of constructions. Theoretically, we propose a semiotic approach to diachronic construction grammar, arguing that multi-sign constructions invariably involve syntagmatic relations, which are themselves form-meaning pairings. This approach allows us to capture generalizations which would otherwise be missed.

A semiotic approach to grammaticalization: modelling representational and interpersonal modality expressed by verbonominal patterns

This paper develops a framework capable of analysing modal qualifications coded by both canonical modal markers and grammaticalized expressions within a semiotic grammar approach (McGregor, 1997). We focus on grammatical constructions that developed from complement constructions containing the shell nouns need, way, chance, doubt, question and wonder, often preceded by a negative quantifier. We range the different types of modal qualification in a hierarchy. The top half subsumes mirativity and epistemic modality, which scope over propositions, and interpersonal deontic modality, which scopes over processes. The bottom half contains representational deontic and dynamic modality, which are internal to the proposition. We also address the neglected issue of the presence of polarity choices in the modal qualifications and in the propositions and processes. In particular, we argue that epistemic modality ascribes inherently positive degrees of likelihood to either positive or negative propositions, thus assessing the probability of occurrence versus non-occurrence of temporally located processes. This allows us to explain not only the semantic equivalence involved in NEG-raising, as in I think he did nothing wrong and I don't think he did anything wrong, but also, more broadly, between pairs like there's no chance she will cry and there's no doubt she will not cry. Finally, the proposed semantic model puts us in a position to propose structural analyses of the interpersonal and representational qualifications of propositions and processes within the broad outlines of McGregor's (1997) Semiotic Grammar.

From complementizing to modifying status: On the grammaticalization of the complement-taking-predicate-clauses chances are and odds are

This article explores the process of grammaticalization undergone by complementation constructions with the shell nouns chances and odds, namely (the) chances/(the) odds + BE + clause, where the subordinate clause functions as a complement to the noun (e.g. The chances are that you will never behold the light of another sun/The odds are that you are out of your reckoning). Structures of this type, which convey the epistemic meaning of probability, develop over time into parenthetical structures (e.g. You never will need it, the chances are./The way he always has and, odds are, always will). The grammaticalization of the construction involves a number of morphosyntactic changes, among them the gradual loss of the determiner in the shell NP and the preference for the zero complementizer introducing the subordinate clause, as well as the tendency for the verb BE to occur in its present tense form. This process of grammaticalization culminates with the availability of complement-taking-predicate-clauses (CTP-clauses) with chances and odds in unambiguous parenthetical positions (medially and finally) and as stand-alone units. Both the matrices in the complementation structures and the parentheticals are shown to be non-propositional and to be deployed for pragmatic functions both at the subjective and at the intersubjective level. The study is based on data from American English, as represented in the Corpus of Historical American English (COHA) and the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA).

Lexical Bundles Ending in that in Academic Writing by Czech Learners and Native Speakers of English

The aim of this paper is to explore how Czech learners of English use lexical bundles ending in that in their academic texts in comparison with novice and professional L1 authors. The analysis is based on three corpora (VESPA-CZ, BAWE and our own cor- pus of papers published in academic journals). The results suggest that Czech learners of English do not use a more limited repertoire of lexical bundles ending in that than pro- fessional writers. However, there are differences between the groups studied, especially in the range of various shell nouns used in nominal bundles. Novice writers, both L1 and L2, use bundles ending in that to express stance more frequently than professional writers.

Shell nouns as register-specific discourse devices

Abstract This article provides a corpus-based investigation into shell nouns. Shell nouns perform a variety of referential functions and express speaker stance. The investigation was motivated by the fact that past research in this area has been primarily based on written texts. Very little is known about the use of shell nouns in speech. The study used the ICE-GB corpus of contemporary British English and investigated cataphoric shell nouns complemented by appositive that-clauses across fine-grained spoken and written registers. It has revealed that the deployment of shell nouns is governed by the principle of register formality definable in terms of contextual configurations of the Field-Tenor-Mode complex rather than the mode of production. Additionally, the study has uncovered the frequent use of a small core set of shell nouns common across speech and writing. Hence it argues that shell nouns are part and parcel of spoken and written discourse and that they pertain more to grammar than to lexis.

Shell-noun use in disciplinary student writing: A multifaceted analysis of problem and way in third-year undergraduate writing across three disciplines

Despite the growth of interest in the phenomenon of shell-nounhood in academic discourse, research has been primarily concerned with published research articles. This contrasts with the limited attention that it has received in the study of disciplinary student writing. This study explores discipline specificity in student writing through an in-depth multifaceted analysis of two frequent shell nouns, problem and way, in a sample of Year 3 undergraduate native writing from the British Academic Written English (BAWE) corpus in three disciplines: Sociology, Business and Engineering. The lexical, syntactico-semantic and textual variables coded yield results that conform to the divide between the more experimental approach of the Physical Sciences and the more interpretive one taken in the Social Sciences. The examination of data in this paper helps identify distinctive disciplinary trends at various levels of linguistic analysis, many of which could then be further inspected through more automated pattern-driven investigations of larger datasets.

Shell nouns as grammatical metaphor in knowledge construal: Variation across science and engineering discourse

This article proposes a novel treatment of cataphoric shell nouns (SNs) as instances of grammatical metaphor serving to reconstruct human experience into knowledge through the discipline-specific construal of different transitivity processes. Based on a two-million-word corpus of research articles in physics and aeronautic engineering, we investigated the sub-disciplinary variation in the use of SNs between science and engineering. While the two disciplines are found to demonstrate similar preferences for SN items evidenced by a large set of common SNs, the empirical study has uncovered significant differences. Firstly, physics favours finite clauses while aeronautic engineering favours non-finite clauses as preferred SN complementation types. Secondly, physics primarily chooses identifying relational processes to characterise fact-like propositions while aeronautic engineering tends to prefer attributive relational processes to express dynamic modality and mental processes of volition to highlight desirability of potential activities under specific conditions. Thirdly, physics resorts to verbal processes of assertion to argue for the discovery of discipline-internal theories while aeronautic engineering relies on material processes to construe laboratory-based activities. These findings reveal the fundamental differences between science and engineering as two discourse types and demonstrate SNs as significant manifestations of cognitive construals underpinning linguistic variations across the two registers.

한국대학생 영어 작문 코퍼스에서의 지칭 표현: 응집성을 중심으로

This study investigates the use of cohesive devices in the corpus of Korean college students’ compositions. In particular, it attempts to provide a comprehensive analysis of the lexico-grammatical contexts in which cohesive referential devices are employed in argumentative essays. For this purpose, a Korean EFL corpus and a native speaker corpus were analyzed based on Gray’s (2010) coding scheme. The coding scheme included variables such as the place and unit of the antecedent, the grammatical role and place of demonstratives, and their preceding or following structures. The results of the analysis showed that Korean EFL learners and native writers were similar in that they tended to use demonstrative pronouns as a subject and demonstrative determiners as objects/complements. Besides this general tendency, non-prototypical uses of the determiners were observed. The learners’ corpus manifested an overuse of an extended antecedent which could reduce the clarity of meaning. The most frequent verb following demonstrative pronouns was the copula (i.e., be) in both corpora. Finally, the learners tended to use a much smaller number of abstract/shell nouns than their native speaker counterparts.

Capturing Second Language Writing Competence: Analysis of Shell Noun Use and Lexical Richness

Flower and Hayes’ (1981) cognitive process model includes planning, translating, and reviewing. In this model, translating is practically the process of putting ideas into language. Researchers have found that vocabulary knowledge is an important factor in translating process. Shell nouns are frequently used as cohesive devices. Accordingly, this study focused on the relationship between the overall quality of a text and either frequency of shell nouns or lexical richness. Thirty-six students of varying proficiency levels participated in the study. The data was part of a mid-term exam in that students were given 30 minutes to write an essay. Proficient EFL writers in this study intuitively avoided repeating the same words, and retrieved more varied and advanced vocabulary from their mental lexicon. A unique but significant predictor of their writing was lexical sophistication, which explained a relatively large proportion of the variance in writing performance. In spite of the fact that the students used a greater range of vocabulary in their writing, lexical diversity was not chiefly a characteristic of their argumentative writing performance. Once again, proficient writers used more shell nouns. As a result, good writers wrote essays containing more shell nouns as cohesive devices, with their writing characterized by greater lexical sophistication.

The Effect of Study-Abroad Experiences on Korean Returnees’ Use of Shell Nouns in Persuasive Writing

With a growing number of returnees from abroad, there has been a steady interest on how their study abroad experiences had an influence on their L2 writing development. However, it is also undeniable that depending on when and how long they stayed in the host country, final attainment varies. Taking the onset age and length of residence into consideration, we designed our study to investigate returnees’ written products, particularly focusing on a cohesive feature called shell noun. The participants were 24 returnees currently residing in Korea at age between 22 and 30. All the participants received over 100 scores on TOEFL. They were grouped into two onset ages (the ages of 9-11 and 12-18) based on the sensitive period hypothesis. The results revealed that onset age was a decisive factor on shell noun frequency; however, length of residence did not predict use of shell nouns, when separated from age. There is not any difference in the use of lexico-grammatical patterns for shell nouns between the two groups of returnees, with the use of the shell noun view being the most frequent.

Shell nouns as grammatical metaphor revealing disparate construals: Investigating the differences between British English and China English based on a comparable corpus

Abstract This article describes a study of shell nouns (SNs) complemented by appositive that-clauses observed in a two-million-word corpus of media English by British and Chinese writers. The grammatical metaphor theory was applied to the data in the light of a novel proposal that the metaphorical forms of SN+that constructions, in their contextual semantic settings, serve to re-construe various transitivity processes. The study produced significant findings, including: (1) the two writer groups demonstrate significantly different preferences for SN types but the British and the Chinese uses are instantiated from a common core set; (2) the Chinese group prefers the re-construal of Identifying Relational processes of facts and evidence as markers of neutral and impersonal discourse; (3) British writers favour the re-construal of Verbal processes of assertion and stance and tend to re-construe Attributive Relational processes with varying degrees of commitment to the encapsulated propositional truth; (4) both groups are inclined towards the re-construal of Mental processes of cognition with a common preference for the re-construal of the experience of knowing, believing and thinking. The findings above lend important empirical support to systemic functional theories and suggest further research in the future regarding SNs as indicators of disparate construals in discourse.

On the anaphoric use of demonstratives this/these in L2 academic writing

The purpose of the study was to examine L2 learners’ use of anaphoric this/these focusing on the variation of use across the skill levels. The writing samples of lower and higher-level L2 learners were compared in terms of the frequencies of this/these as pronouns and as determiners, the structural distribution of antecedents, and the semantic distribution of nouns following the determiners. Writing samples were academic essays (N = 735) from the sub-corpus of English Placement Test (EPT) composed of two levels. The results suggested several meaningful discrepancies in lower versus higher-level writing. First, lower-level students displayed an overall underuse of this/these. Second, students used an increased amount of pronoun this/these in more advanced levels, indicating a more complex nature of higher-level writing. The analysis of the structural types of antecedents suggested a developmental pattern, namely a significant decrease of noun phrase references and an increase of clausal and extended reference. Lastly, lower-level writing included significantly more concrete and abstract nouns after this/these, whereas higher-level students often used this/these followed by shell nouns for a more advanced practice. The study provides implications for L2 writing pedagogy, as well as L2 academic writing research.