Sheath Folds Research Articles

The Neoproterozoic Mozambique Belt in the Gol Mountains (N Tanzania): Structural Analysis of Amphibolite and Granulite‐Facies Nappe Tectonites From a Crustal Orogenic Channel

AbstractA structural analysis of the Gol Mountains of North Tanzania is presented in which we identify and characterize a sheet‐like deformation‐localization zone of regional scale. Syn‐metamorphic rock‐deformation within the localization zone gave rise to widespread tectonite development under high‐T in lower‐mid crustal realms. Regional foliations and mineral/stretching lineations, and associated non‐coaxial mineral petrofabrics can be correlated with ductile flow shear planes. At the macro‐scale these structures are genetically connected with tangential movement zones involving large a‐type and sheath folds, thrusts and ductile shear zones, and hydrothermal quartz megaveins plastically deformed. The dimension of the area affected by this structural style is c. 30 km across the Mozambique Belt and >50 km parallel to it. The associated tectonic displacements likely attained several tens of km in the context of an overall W‐directed tectonic vergence transversal to the Mozambique Belt orogenic trend. It is interpreted as a segment of a mid‐lower crustal orogenic channel active during late Ediacaran amalgamation of the Congo‐Tanzania Archean Craton (and its discontinuous fringe of Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic orogens) with the amalgamated arcs and terranes of the Arabian‐Nubian Shield.

Anatomy of a 300-million-year old fjord in Namibia

Namibia is remarkable in terms of its network of approximately 300-million-year-old fjords, cut by Gondwanan glaciers at high palaeolatitudes during the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age (LPIA). A classic suite of structures is preserved on Proterozoic bedrock, including striations, roches moutonnées and other subglacial features within many of these palaeovalleys. Some palaeovalleys are plastered with comparatively thin diamictites (a few metres) of presumed subglacial origin, in turn capped by ice marginal delta successions (tens of metres). Close examination of deposits in the outer Orutanda Fjord palaeovalley reveals an architecture that shows departure from this trend. There, boulder-bearing diamictites pass laterally into highly contorted heterolithic successions comprising folded and faulted sandstones, siltstones and shales. Aerial imagery from UAVs in tandem with traditional field observations permits mapping of assemblages of soft-sediment deformation structures (tight to recumbent folds, deformation bands, faults, sheath folds) together with spatial mapping of the long-axis of boulders in diamictite. Collectively, this assemblage of structures points towards subglacial deformation, and hence an origin as a “deforming bed” beneath a glacier. Whilst several open questions remain regarding the precise deformation mechanisms, the concept of glacial re-advances into a deeply incised palaeovalley is proposed, by direct analogy to similar stratigraphic architectures in the LPIA record of South America.

Formation mechanism and structural evolution of recumbent fold nappes: New insights from the bizerte area, northern Tunisia

The structural analysis of the Bizerte area in northern Tunisia, utilizing well data and field observations, reveals a complex arrangement of fold structures characterized by recumbent fold nappes to local sheath-like fold structures, indicative of a deep detachment phenomenon. The genesis and present geometry of these fold structures unravel a multifaceted structural history: (i) In the Tortonian folding phase, a detachment mechanism may have initiated the formation of a horizontal shearing plane at the base of the Paleocene marls. The gradual evolution of syn-shear recumbent fold nappes into sheath folds within sedimentary to pseudo-metamorphic rocks is attributed to a flow perturbation process analogue to “layer-parallel shearing,” dictating the geometric configuration of folds subsequent to a simple shear inducing perturbations in pre-existing layer disturbances. (ii) During the Late Quaternary shortening phase, a NW-trending right lateral shear zone emerged, delineated by the reactivation of pre-existing faults under compression. The reorientation of the anterior fold axes is attributed to the counterclockwise rotation of rigid blocks within the framework of P-type conjugate fractures. (iii) The transition to thin-skinned tectonics, characterized by the uplift of previously buried material, was characterized by a significant increase in shortening during Neogene events, encompassed in the broader regional geodynamic context of continental collision. From the Lower Quaternary onward, the structural model exhibits a combination of layer-parallel and layer-normal shear processes.

The power of modern 3-D visualization of high-resolution terrain models in geologic mapping: Complex fold geometries revealed by 3-D mapping in the Panamint metamorphic complex, eastern California, USA

We use structure from motion–multiview stereo (SM) terrain models developed from ground-based images and images acquired from uncrewed aircraft (aka drones) as a base map for three-dimensional (3-D) mapping on the walls of a deep canyon in the Panamint Range of eastern California, USA. The ability to manipulate the 3-D model with views from arbitrary look directions and broad scale range revealed structures that were invisible to conventional two-dimensional (2-D) mapping because of both the scale of the structures and their exposure on vertical to near-vertical cliff faces. The analysis supports field evidence for four phases of ductile deformation, with only one of the younger phases documented on early geologic maps of the area. The oldest deformational event (D1) produced the main metamorphic fabric and pre-dates Late Cretaceous plutons. This deformation produced a 200–250-m-thick high-strain zone localized along marbles at the top of the Kingston Peak Formation and lower Noonday Formation. Geometric analysis from the model suggests strongly that large sheath folds at scales of 100–300 m are developed within these marbles. Large measured finite strains indicate displacement across this apparent shear zone of at least 4–5 km and displacements of tens of kilometers are allowable, yet the structure is invisible to conventional mapping because the high-strain zone is stratabound. The main fabric shows two clear overprints and a third that is likely an even younger deformation. D2 and D3 generated tight to close, recumbent folds and open to tight, upright folds, respectively, both folding the main foliation with localized development of crenulation cleavages axial planar to the folds. An additional overprint shows no clear cross-cutting relationship with D2 or D3 fabrics and could be a manifestation of either of those events, although the deformation is spatially limited to a narrow shear zone beneath a brittle, dextral-normal fault with the same kinematics as a mylonitic fabric in a Cretaceous granite in the footwall. This observation suggests an extensional, core complex–style deformation to produce this structure. We suggest that 3-D mapping has the potential to revolutionize geologic mapping studies, particularly where steep topography provides 3-D views that are virtually invisible on conventional 2-D maps. Previously bewildering geologic puzzles can be solved by the ability to visualize large cliff exposures from arbitrary angles and map the features in true 3-D at resolutions to the centimeter level. Although this study emphasized intermediate scales imaged by a drone, our methods here are easily extended to larger scales using a crewed aircraft for imaging. We suggest these methods should be used routinely in frontier areas with steep terrain where aviation is already in use for access, but the methods can be employed anywhere steep terrain “hides” major rock exposures on conventional 2-D maps.

Tectonic transport direction of allochthonous units in the northwest of the Central Taurides (Türkiye)

This study aimed to determine the tectonic transport direction in the southeastern Sultandağları Massif based on tectonic structures observed in deformed rocks. The study area, which contains many allochthonous units, is located in the eastern parts of the Isparta Angle and includes part of the Central Taurides. The basement rocks in the study area consist of Permo-Carboniferous metacarbonate and metaclastic alternations. These Paleozoic units are overlain by Mesozoic phyllites, metaconglomerates and metacarbonates above an angular unconformity. These units are tectonically overlain by Late Cretaceous sedimentary and ophiolitic complexes, while these are unconformably overlain by Miocene-Quaternary sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The study area, which presents a giant anticlinorium geometry with NW- SE trend and inverted to the SW on map scale between the settlements of Çay (Afyon) - Yenidoğan (Konya), was deformed at least three times by orogenic movements before the Miocene and gained fold, cleavage, and nappe-thrust structures. With the Alpine orogenic events, the region acquired Type-2 and Type-3 refolded interference patterns and outcrop-scale sheath folds, which are unique to shear zones. The fold axes in the region present a wide range of orientations but dominantly plunge NW and SE. Structural analyses using the Hansen slip method revealed that the allochthonous units were transported from NE to SW along a plane oriented N 10°–40° W and dipping 20°–40° NE in its current location. Other structures also confirm this top to SW tectonic transport direction.

Prolonged evolution of syn-collisional progressive deformation of the Trans-North China Orogen: Structural and geochronological evidence from the Xiaoqinling region, central China

Significant understanding of the Trans-North China Orogen (TNCO) has been achieved through previous studies. However, the lack of structural analyses, especially for its southern part, has restricted our understanding of the structural evolution of the TNCO. In this contribution, we present new structural and geochronological data from the Taihua Complex of the Xiaoqinling region to reconstruct the collision-induced deformation history and provide constraints on the structural evolution of the TNCO. Paleoproterozoic collision-induced structures in the Xiaoqinling region are characterized by the development of penetrative, ductile deformation fabrics, localized ductile shear zones, and syn-shearing folds, notably sheath folds. The evolution of the folds and syn-tectonic migmatites records the occurrence of non-coaxial progressive shear deformation within ductile shear zones. Vorticity analysis confirms simple-shear-dominated general-shear deformation within the shear zones, with an increase in a pure shear component during the later stages. The integrated results, encompassing the geometry, kinematics, finite strain, and geochronology of these shear zones and folds, reveal the presence of the regional-scale, collision-induced sheath folds that were associated with low-angle thrust shear zones with WNW-directed kinematics. Deformation temperatures of 500–650 °C indicate that the ductile shear zones and simultaneous sheath folds formed during the exhumation process of the TNCO. New zircon U–Pb ages constrain the timing of the metamorphism and ductile deformation to between 1951 and 1840 Ma. Integration of this and previous dating results reveals a history of prolonged collision for the TNCO, lasting from as early as ∼ 1.97 Ga and continuing until as late as ∼ 1.84 Ga, with the earlier period of 1.97–1.88 Ga representing the continental subduction stage and the later period of 1.88–1.84 Ga corresponding to the subsequent exhumation stage. The protracted orogenic evolution for the TNCO supports the notion that large-scale collisional orogenesis can occur over such long durations (over 100 Mya). These structural and geochronological data support the orogenic model of SE-directed subduction polarity.

Fluid dynamics, structural, micro-structural, and kinematic analyses on the Kuh-e-Namak (Dashti) salt diapiric rectangular cuboid channel flow, Iran

A study was conducted to investigate the Kuh-e-Namak (Dashti) salt diapir using fluid dynamics, structural, and microstructural, analyses. The study focused on transient flow caused by salt diapirism within the restraining bend of the Kazerun fault system. The salt diapir is located in Bushehr Province, Iran, and it was found that it represents Newtonian viscous flow within a rectangular cuboid channel, rather than a circular channel as previously thought. The study discovered that the salt diapir underwent laminar irrotational flow (Re = 1147.31) upward, with the symmetric parabola velocity profile dominated by Poiseuille flow. When loaded by sedimentary overburden, the salt tended to migrate. The upper part of the salt dome and diapiric flow transferred from irrotational laminar Poiseuille flow to transient Poiseuille-Couette and turbulent Poiseuille-Couette flows with a non-uniform asymmetric parabola profile. The drag sheath folds from diapiric flow showed monoclinic symmetry patterns, which led to a relative increase in the ellipticity of individual sheath fold rings to define the analogous eye-folds and cat ‘s-eye-folds. The presence of porphyroclasts or vortexes of σ, δ, and φ types in sheath folds indicates that the upper sections of the salt dome and diapir went through a Poiseuille-Couette flow or transient and turbulent flow during a later stage. The salt transient and turbulent flow can gradually lead to increased shear stress and high strain rates that are superposed by sub-simple shear, resulting in activation of the faults and consequently, the earthquake as we have seen in the destructive Kaki-Shonbe earthquake (Mw = 6.3).

CPO and quantitative textural analyses within sheath folds

We investigate the intra- and inter-crystalline deformation processes involved in sheath fold development combining complementary fabric analysis techniques and 3D modelling by neutron tomography. The investigated sheath fold is a multi-layered sub-metre scale single-eye structure, developed in metapsammites from the Ben Hope Nappe, overlying the Moine Thrust Zone of NW Scotland. Crystallographic Preferred Orientations (CPOs) of quartz and biotite were acquired through a Neutron Diffractometer and an SEM-EBSD system to compare the full-fabric of the main phases and the active slip systems for an “in situ” structural control. Combined with orientation maps and grain size maps, results show that, despite the different structural positions of the investigated microdomains (upper vs lower fold limbs, inner vs outer sheath closures, distance from hinge of the sheath fold), quartz and biotite deformed uniformly, suggesting a constant differential stress and orientation of the kinematic vorticity axis. Previously recognized detachment horizons within the sampled sheath fold do not affect the fabric patterns recorded by quartz and biotite. This may be interpreted in two different ways: i) detachments formed during earlier active folding and prior to passive amplification of folds associated with more uniform flow to create the sheath fold geometries; ii) the quartz c-axis patterns are coeval with a late deformation phase (loading of the orogenic wedge) that pervasively obliterated the previous fabric and therefore did not preserve the active folding component. Several pieces of evidence reported here, such as top-to-SE normal-shear sense which is opposite to the regional kinematics, are more supportive of the second hypothesis. The analysis of mineral textures provides an improved dataset for the whole sheath fold and increases our understanding of recrystallization mechanisms active in shear zones.

Tectonic evolution of the Aggeneys-Gamsberg Ore District, South Africa, and implications for the geodynamic setting of the Namaqua Sector

Understanding the deformation history of the structurally complex Aggeneys-Gamsberg Ore District (A-GOD), in the Namaqua Sector of the Mesoproterozoic Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Province of South Africa, is key to discovering additional metasediment-hosted base metal sulphide mineralization. Although several studies have examined the structure of the main ore deposits and outcrops in the district, and others have investigated the timing of sedimentation, magmatism, and metamorphism, no previous studies have focused on integrating these two datasets. We therefore combine structural observations and the resulting relative timeline of events with new and existing zircon U-Pb geochronology, to yield a temporally constrained tectonic history for the district.The regionally recognized Paleoproterozoic D1 deformation is not recorded in the A-GOD, which preserves only Mesoproterozoic rocks. The largely stratiform base metal deposits occur near the top of a sequence of metamorphosed siliciclastic sediments (Wortel and Hotson Formations), deposited after 1261 ± 5 Ma (youngest reliable detrital zircons). These metasediments are tectonically interleaved with the intrusive ∼ 1190 Ma Little Namaqualand Suite (Aroams Gneiss) and younger ∼ 1175–1145 Ma metagranitoids (Achab Gneiss, Hoogoor Gneiss, aplite sills). Magmatism occurred early during D2a deformation, which created kilometre-scale isoclinal folds and thrusts during S/SW-directed contraction, as recorded at the Swartberg and Broken Hill-Deeps deposits. Associated M2a metamorphism is dated at ∼ 1200 Ma (metamorphic zircon rims), but this was not the peak metamorphic episode as previously thought. The sequence was then exhumed, and the unconformably overlying clastics and bimodal volcanics of the Koeris Formation were deposited in local transtensional pull-apart basins at ∼ 1130 Ma. Thrust stacking in the Aggeneys Mountains may have occurred during subsequent D2c contraction, associated with ∼ 1075 Ma M2c metamorphism, but evidence remains cryptic. The entire sequence is affected by kilometre-scale sheath folds that close downwards to the ∼ ENE (as at Gamsberg and the Quarry Fold Nappe), associated with ∼ ENE-trending open, upright folds. These developed during D3a ∼ ENE-directed extensional to constrictional shearing at peak M3 amphibolite-facies conditions, which re-used the gently dipping D2 regional fabric and overprinted it with new ∼ E-W trending D3 linear features. Abundant metamorphic zircon dates suggest an age of ∼ 1025 Ma for D3a and M3. Ongoing extension at retrograde conditions reactivated earlier structures, such as the Swartberg Thrust, as D3b low-angle, ductile–brittle detachment faults. Finally, dextral transform motion created local D4 monoclines and dextral strike-slip faults, possibly associated with ∼ 1000 Ma M4 metamorphic zircon growth and emplacement of a regional pegmatite swarm.The A-GOD has traditionally been fitted into a regional tectonic model involving accretion of distinct terranes onto the Kaapvaal Craton, during the polyphase ∼ 1.2–1.0 Ga Namaquan Orogeny. In contrast, recent studies propose that the entire Namaqua Sector instead occupied a back-arc setting between ∼ 1.35 and < 1.1 Ga. Our results support a hybrid model, involving accretion and translation of previously extended crustal fragments against the craton, with initially the entire Namaqua Sector - but later only the western portion - located in a hot back-arc setting influenced by subducting slab dynamics.

Structural Study of the Precambrian Basement of Kaele (Far North Cameroon): Contribution of Remote Sensing (Application of Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS Images) and Field Data

The Kaele is located in the northern domain of the Pan-African fold belt of Central Africa in Cameroon, north of Mayo- Kébbi domain. The structural study carried out in this area is based on Landsat 8 OLI/ TIRS image processing techniques and traditional geological prospection methods. The objective is to evaluate the contribution of landsat 8 OLI/TIRS image processing and field data in the structural mapping of the Kaélé region. The application of the 7×7 directional filters of the Sobel type in the N-S, E-W, NE-SW and NW-SE directions, to the ETM+3 channels gives better results. The rose diagram of the lineament map (obtained from image processing) shows a major E-W direction (N100E) and a secondary direction N-S (N10E). The studied area is affected by a polyphase deformation D1 to D4. The first phase of deformation (D1) is tangential and has set up the sub-horizontal dipping S1 schistosity which bears a composite L1 lineation (stretching, mineral). The D2 phase is constrictional and responsible for the establishment of the subvertical S2 axial plane foliation of the P2 folds, carrying the composite L2 lineation (stretching, mineral) and the B2 boudinage. The dextral-moving C2 shear cuts the S1 foliation, the P2 folds are asymmetrical isopach and anisopach. The third phase D3 is a constriction and set up the S3 schistosity which appears in syn -tectonic granite and highlight the C3 shear planes. The C3 shear is dextral and the P3 folds are isopach, anisopach, intrafolial and sheath fold. The last phase of deformation D4 is brittle and has set up faults and joints. There exist similarities between orientation of lineament from image processing and direction of D2, D3 and D4 deformational phases structures.

Tectonics, geochronology, and petrology of the Walker Top Granite, Appalachian Inner Piedmont, North Carolina (USA): Implications for Acadian and Neoacadian orogenesis

Abstract The Walker Top Granite (here formally named) is a peraluminous megacrystic granite that occurs in the Cat Square terrane, Inner Piedmont, part of the southern Appalachian Acadian-Neoacadian deformational and metamorphic core. The granite occurs as disconnected concordant to semi-concordant plutons in migmatitic, sillimanite zone rocks of the Brindle Creek thrust sheet. Locally garnet-bearing, the Walker Top Granite contains blocky alkali feldspar megacrysts 1–10 cm long in a groundmass of muscovite-biotite-quartz-plagioclase-alkali feldspar and accessory to trace zircon, titanite, epidote, sillimanite (xenocrysts), and apatite. It varies from granite to granodiorite and contains several xenoliths of biotite gneiss, amphibolite, quartzite, and in one location encloses charnockite (here formally named Vale Charnockite). New sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe U-Pb zircon magmatic crystallization ages obtained from the plutons of the Walker Top Granite are: 407 ± 1 Ma in the Brushy Mountains; 366 ± 2 Ma in the South Mountains; and 358 ± 5 Ma in the Vale–Cat Square area. An age of 366 ± 3 Ma was obtained from the Vale Charnockite at its type locality. Major-, trace-element, and isotopic chemistry indicates that Walker Top is a high-K, peraluminous granite, plotting as volcanic arc or syn-collisional on tectonic discrimination diagrams and suggests that it represents deep-seated anatectic magma with S- to I-type affinity. The alkali calcic, ferroan Vale Charnockite likely formed by deep crustal melting, and similar geochemical and trace-element compositions suggest a similar tectonic origin as Walker Top Granite. The discontinuous nature of the Walker Top Granite plutons precludes it intruded as a volcanic arc. Instead, the peraluminous nature, common xenoliths of surrounding country rock, and geochemical and isotopic signatures suggest it formed by partial melting of Cat Square and Tugaloo terrane rocks. Following emplacement and crystallization, Walker Top plutons were deformed into elliptical to linear shapes—SW-directed sheath folds—enveloped by partially melted, pelitic and quart-zofeldspathic rocks. Collectively, Walker Top and other plutons helped weaken the crust and facilitate lateral crustal flow in a SW-directed, tectonically driven orogenic channel during the Acadian-Neoacadian event. A comparison with the northern Appalachians recognizes a similar temporal magmatic and deformational history during the Acadian and Neoacadian orogenies, although while the Walker Top Granite intruded the lower plate during eastward subduction beneath the peri-Gondwanan Carolina superterrane, the northern Appalachian plutons intruded the upper plate during subduction of the Avalon superterrane westward beneath Laurentia. We hypothesize that a transform fault, located near the southern end of the New York promontory, accommodated oppositely directed lateral plate motion and different subduction polarity between the Carolina and Avalon superterranes during the Acadian and Neoacadian orogenies.

Strain partitioning in the Moine Nappe, northernmost Scotland

Abstract Extreme strain in the form of flattening or constriction during noncoaxial shear in ductile shear zones provides a record of ductile thrust system dynamics and the overall tectonic evolution. Within the Moine Nappe in northern Scotland, between the Ben Hope and Moine thrusts, the Strathan Conglomerate displays apparent strain partitioning with extreme flattening (e.g., laterally extensive sheets of deformed pebbles with aspect ratios of 134:113:1 and 88–92% estimated thinning) adjacent to the overlying Ben Hope Thrust and extreme constriction (e.g., rods with aspect ratios of 21:4:1 and estimated extension of 1000%) lower in the nappe package. We demonstrate that partitioning of strain is between its intensity and how deformation is manifested. Field, microstructural, and crystallographic orientation data from this study indicate that both areas were deformed by WNW-directed noncoaxial shear and coaxial flattening under amphibolite-facies conditions. Adjacent to the Ben Hope thrust, flattening was pervasive during nonco-axial shear, whereas beneath and within the Moine Nappe package, polyphase folding dominated. There, early, large-scale folds (F2) rotated into the transport direction. Subsequent transport-parallel (F3) folds and tubular sheath folds formed on the F2 limbs and were dismembered to form rods. No evidence of constriction is observed; instead, pervasive noncoaxial shear was accompanied by minor flattening under decreasing temperature conditions. Thus, these S-tectonites in the Moine Nappe are the result of concentrated flattening of pebbles into sheets during WNW-directed shear, whereas the L-tectonites result from heterogeneously distributed shear and folding, coupled with minor flattening, which produced rods without constriction.

Giant sheath-folded nappe stack demonstrates extreme subhorizontal shear strain in an Archean orogen

Abstract Giant sheath-folded nappes are associated with suture zones and emplacement of far-traveled allochthons in Phanerozoic orogens, demonstrating a rare but significant geologic phenomenon indicative of modern-style plate tectonics. We document the world's oldest-known subhorizontal mega-scale sheath fold from Archean Alpine-style nappes of the Central orogenic belt, North China craton. The Zanhuang nappes are recumbent Alpine-style forearc-affinity metabasaltic and metasedimentary nappes emplaced over a passive continental margin in the Archean, marking an ancient suture zone. Field evidence shows multiscale sheath folds from decimeters to tens of meters in size, and our three-dimensional fence profile, fold hinges, kinematic lineations, and lithological traces define an ~1-km-long (parallel to the x-axis) sheath fold in the core of the nappe stack. Structural analysis statistically demonstrates the macro-scale recumbent sheath-folded nappe preserves a complete 180° hinge-line curvature. The giant sheath fold plunges northwest, reflecting its formation during non-coaxial, top-to-the-southeast shearing with extremely high shear strain (γ ≥10), equated to &amp;gt;10 km of ductile slip on the bounding surfaces. Slip vectors derived from S-C fabrics on overturned limbs are consistent with rotation into the southeast-directed transport direction, parallel to the similarly rotated fold hinges. Comparison of the giant sheath-folded nappes from the Archean Zanhuang example with mega-scale sheath folds in Phanerozoic and Proterozoic orogens shows that Neoarchean lithosphere was stiff enough to allow tectonics to operate in a manner analogous to modern-style plate tectonics.

Effect of the internal plastic deformation of salt structures on the lithologic succession of evaporites: A case study on the Palaeogene Kumugeliemuqun formation, Kelasu Thrust Belt, Kuqa depression, Tarim Basin

For a normal saline lake sequence, as long as the depositional setting is the same, the sediments thickness and saline lake sequence are comparable across an area. However, in the Palaeogene Kumugeliemuqun Formation, in wells from similar depositional settings and the same member, the saline lake succession varies greatly. Member 1 of the Kumugeliemuqun Formation, depending on the combination of halite, gypsum, and dolomite (limestone), is divided into four types of saline lake successions: type A, type B, type C, and type D. In the same depositional setting, the saline lake succession and sediment thickness among adjacent areas differ. In member 2 of the Kumugeliemuqun Formation, depending on the association of mudstone and halite, ten different saline lake successions were identified as sequences 1 to 10. Even within the same depositional setting, the saline lake succession and sediment thickness can differ. To explain this phenomenon, we present evidence that includes the sediment thickness, a single cycle of saline lake succession, and an ancient landform, and a salt structure to analyze the role of tectonic deformation in members 1 and 2 of the Kumugeliemuqun Formation. Moreover, waveform indication inversion was used to describe tectonic deformation patterns. The results reveal that saline succession types C and D were the result of tectonic deformation in member 1, while saline lake succession sequence types A and B were not affected by tectonic deformation in member 1. Additionally, the ten diverse saline lake succession sequences in member 2 are all the result of intense tectonic deformation. The inversion results reveal that the inclined thrust, recumbent, and sheath folding are the principal deformation styles in member 2, while flow and hook folds are the main internal deformation styles in member 1. Finally, based on these observations, we conclude that tectonic compression created the plastic flow of rock salt, which induced folding and faulting deformation. The faults produced repetition in the lithologic succession, and the folds resulted in the inversion of the lithologic succession. Therefore, due to the effects of the faults and folds, even within the same depositional setting, the lithologic succession and sediment thicknesses differ from one another. • Features of lithological successions inside salt structures are been studied. • The deformations pattern in members 1 and 2 are been described. • Effect of salt rock deformation on kinds of lithological succession is discussed. • Fold and fault in salt structures produced kinds of lithological succession.

The interplay of structure and metamorphism at Broken Hill, NSW, Australia

Downward younging of stratigraphy in several large F2 fold structures in the Paleoproterozoic Willyama Supergroup in the Broken Hill area has previously been explained by very large-scale F1 nappe folds followed by relatively upright F2 and F3 folds. In three major structures, the Mt Robe–East Eldee Structure, the Paps Synform and the Bijerkerno Synform, the andalusite-sillimanite metamorphic isograd parallels stratigraphy for tens of kilometres. Given the conformability of these segments of isograd in plan view, it is reasonable to suggest that in two of the structures, sillimanite-grade rocks rest on andalusite-grade rocks. In all cases the younger stratigraphic units are at lower metamorphic grade than the older stratigraphic units, whether the stratigraphy is upright, as in the Bijerkerno Synform, or inverted, as in the Mt Robe-East Eldee Structure and the Paps Synform. Major bodies (mini-batholiths) of pegmatite are confined stratigraphically to below the Sundown Group, whether the stratigraphy is upright or overturned. In the D1 nappe model the andalusite-sillimanite isograd and the emplacement of pegmatite mini-batholiths must both predate the D1 nappe folding. There is evidence that andalusite preceded D1, but not sillimanite, which is a defining mineral in the first-generation schistosity (S1). The large-scale nappe model is also not compatible with calculated metamorphic pressures. An alternative model involving extensional D1, followed by D2 sheath folds, explains downward-facing metamorphic facies but is not viable. Large-scale fold structures in the Mt Robe Block can be explained by recumbent folding at a moderate scale, followed by inclined sheath folding. The downward-facing stratigraphy and metamorphic facies in the Mt Robe and Paps synforms are interpreted to lie on the underside of inclined F2 sheath-like folds. KEY POINTS In major fold structures in the Willyama Supergroup, upper stratigraphic units are at a lower metamorphic grade than lower stratigraphic units, whether the fold is upward-facing or downward-facing. In two large F2 folds sillimanite-grade rocks showing melting are situated above andalusite-grade rocks. Pegmatitic mini-batholiths show semi-regional stratigraphic control below the top of the Broken Hill Group, whether they are in upward or downward-facing fold limbs. A new structural model with D1 recumbent folding, followed by D2 sheath-like folding, is based on structures in the Mt Robe Block.

Architecture of an upper-level weak detachment zone: Mexican Fold and Thrust Belt, central Mexico

The mechanical properties of detachment zones significantly influence the geometry, structural style, and amount of shortening in the fold and thrust belts. The shale layers in a sedimentary package can act as a detachment zone at different levels of a fold and thrust belt. Detachment zones are not exposed in the active fold and thrust belts, making the detailed study of these detachment zones impossible. This situation makes it difficult to know the architecture and main deformation mechanisms. In this work, we use detailed structural analysis to investigate deformational mechanisms of an ancient and exhumed detachment zone in the Mexican Fold and Thrust Belt, in central Mexico, as an analogue to active modern-day examples. We describe the architecture of the detachment zone through detailed field mapping, strain measuring, and vorticity analysis. Our observations suggest that the studied shear zone is an upper-level detachment zone developed during the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene orogeny. The upper-level detachment zone accommodates the deformation through brittle-ductile structures related to localized mylonitic foliation, s-c structures, duplexes, sheath folds and reverse faults. The mesoscopic structures described in the shear zone suggest a heterogeneous shear deformation. The kinematic vorticity values (Wk = 0.73 in average) and the strain data (RXZ ~3 in average) suggest a sub-simple shear mechanism of deformation. Our results show the role of weak layers during the contraction of a sedimentary package and demonstrate the presence of simple and pure shear mechanisms in the development of the complex detachment zones in fold and thrust belts.

Chapter 3 Thrusts, extensional faults and fold patterns of the major units

Abstract This chapter is concerned with the main faults and folds within the Southeastern Oman Mountains based on available literature. The main, best and most widely exposed thrusts are those related to the SW-directed late Cretaceous obduction of the allochthonous nappes onto the Arabian platform and margin. These thrusts are related to obduction of rocks, which had formed hundreds of kilometres offshore Oman. The thrusts were active from the Cenomanian to the Campanian. Obduction-related thrusts and folds are spectacularly exposed within the rocks of the Arabian platform in the eastern part of the Saih Hatat Dome, including large-scale recumbent cylindrical folds and sheath folds. At least six fold sets can be studied in the Southeastern Oman Mountains. At least two of them had formed prior to obduction and are exposed in the Pre-Permian formations of the Jabal Akhdar Dome. At least three fold sets formed in the course of obduction, while at least one fold set is postobductional in age. Besides the compressional structures, the Oman Mountains expose major post-obductional extensional faults, mostly at the margins of the Jabal Akhdar and Saih Hatat domes. The throw of these faults amounts to a few to several kilometres. Finally, this chapter provides an overview of the enigmatic Batinah Mélange which consists of slivers of Hawasina rocks, resting (unusually) structurally above the Semail Ophiolite.

Sheath fold development around deformable inclusions: Integration of field-analysis (Cima Lunga unit, Central Alps) and 3D numerical models

We investigated complex tectonic structures within a km-scale shear zone (Cima Lunga unit), which is traditionally interpreted as generated by multiple, distinct deformation phases, despite showing unique schistosity and lineation. Based on structural analyses we discovered sheath folds developed in relatively weak gneissic/schistose rocks, enveloping inclusions of stronger ultramafics. The internal layering of inclusions experienced superimposed folding, boudinage and folding, attesting to layer-parallel shortening followed by stretching and further again shortening. Using 3D numerical modelling, we explored the structure evolution within and around deformable viscous inclusions under far-field simple shear. The numerical results showed that the internal deformation of ellipsoidal inclusions and the fold development around the inclusions are both dependent on the viscosity ratio, shear strain and the inclusion aspect ratio. The Cima Lunga structural patterns were reproduced for finite strains exceeding 7.5 and viscosity ratio between 2.8 and 9. Inclusions are characterized by persistent rotation of the internal layering, resulting in super-simple shear regime, with kinematic vorticity number >1. An important corollary is that ultramafics and host rocks experienced coupled deformation since the prograde metamorphic evolution. Finally, we emphasise that progressive deformation in shear zones may offer sufficient explanation for complex structural patterns, without invoking unjustified polyphase deformation.

A reinterpretation of the Snow Lake gold camp, Trans-Hudson Orogen, Canada: the use of cleavages as markers to correlate structures across deformed terranes

The Snow Lake gold camp is located within amphibolite facies volcanic rocks of the ca. 1.88–1.87 Ga Flin Flon – Glennie Complex (FFGC) in the Trans-Hudson Orogen, Manitoba. During thrusting and collision with the Archean Sask craton, volcanic rocks were interleaved with turbidites of the ca. 1.855–1.84 Ga Burntwood Group and sandstone and conglomerate of the ca. 1.845–1.835 Ga Missi Group. The main cleavage in the turbidites was previously attributed to thrusting and used as a marker for correlating structures across the camp. A re-examination of this cleavage suggests that it overprints the thrust faults and formed during later collision between the FFGC and the Archean Superior craton. This has important implications as it further suggests that (1) previously unrecognized, early brittle thrust faults repeat volcanic stratigraphy and may have created the boundary conditions that enabled the formation of ductile thrust faults, fold nappes, and mega sheath folds; (2) shear sense indicators along ductile thrust faults formed during their reactivation as sinistral shear zones rather than during thrusting; and (3) peak metamorphic conditions were caused by thrusting and stacking during collision with the Sask craton but were attained later during collision with the Superior craton due to the time lag between orogenesis and the re-equilibration of regional isotherms. Results from this study may be applicable to other complexly deformed terranes where the dominant regional cleavage differs in expression in mixed volcanic and sedimentary successions and has been used as a marker for correlating structures.

Evolving temperature field in a fossil subduction channel during the transition from subduction to collision (Tauern Window, Eastern Alps)

AbstractWe investigate the evolution of the three‐dimensional thermal structure of a palaeo‐subduction channel exposed in the Penninic units of the central Tauern Window (Eastern Alps). Structural and petrological observations reveal a sheath fold with an amplitude of some 20 km that formed under high‐P conditions (~2 GPa). The fold is a composite structure that isoclinally folded the thrust of an ophiolitic nappe derived from Alpine Tethys Ocean onto a unit of the distal European continental margin, also affected by the high‐P conditions. This structural assemblage is preserved between two younger domes at either end of the Tauern Window. The domes deform isograds of the T‐dominated Barrovian metamorphism that itself overprints the high‐P metamorphism partly preserved in the sheath fold. Using Raman spectroscopy on carbonaceous material (RSCM), we are able to distinguish peak‐temperature domains related to the original subduction metamorphism from domains associated with the later temperature‐dominated (Barrovian) metamorphism. The distribution of RSCM temperatures in the Barrovian domain indicates a lateral and vertical decrease of peak temperature with increasing distance from the centres of the thermal domes. This represents a downward increase of palaeo‐temperature, in line with previous studies. However, we observe the opposite palaeo‐temperature trend in the lower limb of the sheath fold, namely an upward increase. We interpret this inverted palaeo‐temperature domain as the relic of a subduction‐related temperature field. Towards the central part of the sheath fold's upper limb, RSCM temperatures increase to a maximum of ~520°C. Further upsection in the hangingwall of the sheath fold, palaeo‐peak temperatures decrease to where they are indistinguishable from the peak temperatures of the overprinting Barrovian metamorphism. Peak‐temperature contours of the subduction‐related metamorphism are oriented roughly parallel to the folded nappe contacts and lithological layering. The contours close towards the northern, western and eastern parts of the fold, resulting in an eye‐shaped, concentric pattern in cross‐section. The temperature contour geometry therefore mimics the fold geometry itself, indicating that these contours were also folded in a sheath‐like manner. We propose that this sheath‐like pattern is the result of a two‐stage process that reflects a change of the mode of nappe formation in the subduction zone from thrusting to fold nappe formation. First, thrusting of a hot oceanic nappe onto a colder continental nappe created an inverted peak‐thermal gradient. Second, sheath folding of this composite nappe structure together with the previously established peak‐temperature pattern during exhumation. This pattern was preserved because temperatures decreased during retrograde exhumation metamorphism and remained less than the subduction‐related peak temperatures during the later Barrovian overprint. The fold ascended with diapir‐like kinematics in the subduction channel.