Shea Fat Research Articles

Physicochemical Properties Of Shea Butter Synthesized Biodiesel

Base – catalyzed transesterification of Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) seed fat was carried out at a methanol/oil ratio of 5:1 (V/V) at 70OC to synthesize the corresponding methyl esters (biodiesel). The percentage yield of approximately 87%, was recorded after ninety minutes, indicating that Shea fat is a good biodiesel feedstock. The physicochemical properties of the Shea biodiesel were determined. The colour was pale yellow while the relative density (870 Kg/m3 ), kinematic viscosity (2.66 mm2 s-1 400C), acid value (0.19 mg KOH/g), peroxide value (0.52 meq/kg) and cetane number (68.10) were observed. The cloud point was found to be 9.30C, while the flash point of 156.670C, iodine value of 35.29 mg/100g and energy value of 39.3 MJ/Kg were recorded. All these value compare well with previous works and are within acceptable limits as specified by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The current research indicated that Shea butter has biodiesel potential aside its uses in culinary and cosmetics applications.

Anti-Inflammatory and Chemopreventive Effects of Triterpene Cinnamates and Acetates from Shea Fat

Four triterpene acetates, alpha-amyrin acetate (1a), beta-amyrin acetate (2a), lupeol acetate (3a), and butyrospermol acetate (4a), and four triterpene cinnamates, alpha-amyrin cinnamate (1c), beta-amyrin cinnamate (2c), lupeol cinnamate (3c), and butyrospermol cinnamate (4c), were isolated from the kernel fat (n-hexane extract) of the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa; Sapotaceae). Upon evaluation of these eight triterpene esters for inhibitory activity against 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced inflammation (1 microg/ear) in mice, all of the compounds tested exhibited marked anti-inflammatory activity, with ID50 values in the range of 0.15-0.75 micromol/ear, and among which compound 3c showed the highest activity with ID(50) of 0.15 micromol/ear. Compound 3c (10 mg/kg) further exhibited anti-inflammatory activity on rat hind paw edema induced by carrageenan, with the percentage of inflammation at 1, 3, and 5 h of 35.4, 41.5, and 45.5%, respectively. The eight triterpene esters were then evaluated for their inhibitory effects on Epstein-Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) in Raji cells as a primary screening test for inhibitors of tumor promoters. All the compounds showed moderate inhibitory effects. Furthermore, compound 3c exhibited inhibitory effect on skin tumor promotion in an in vivo two-stage carcinogenesis test using 7,12-dimethylbenz [a] anthracene (DMBA) as an initiator and TPA as a promoter. The biological activities of triterpene acetate and cinnamate esters, together with the exceptionally high levels of these triterpenes in shea fat, indicate that shea nuts and shea fat (shea butter) constitute a significant source of anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor promoting compounds.

Production, obtention et valorisation des beurres exotiques

By definition, “butters” are anhydrous and solid fats at room temperature. A lot of different crude fats and butters are available in Africa and other tropical countries, and their characteristics make often them interesting to valorise. This presentation will focus on a personal experience dealing with production and development of African butters. The production of butters and particularly the shea fat, is done by one of the two basic methods, roughly described as “traditional or modern”. The rural (traditional) vegetable oil extraction processes, which predominate the extraction technologies in many of the shea kernel producing areas, involve water extraction. This method often employs simple small sized and household equipments; it is based on aqueous extraction techniques to produce oil. The work is very hard but provides jobs, money and “consideration” to the women who are traditionally in charge of this work. Such a traditional method yields not more than 35% of the kernel oil contents and the product quality is often poor. It is obvious that a major contributing factor to the low yield is the treatment inability to adequately break the kernel cellular structures, a necessity to obtain an efficient oil/fat extraction. The “modern” methods involve the use of mechanical presses and organic solvents; although the methods are quite high-yielding (with extraction rates around 80%), they are reportedly difficult to perform because of the high latex content in the kernels: in fact the latex agglutinates and clogs the equipment or inhibits an efficient penetration of the extraction solvent. As we all know olein rich vegetable oils are globally abundant but commercial sources of vegetable fats, or “stearin”, are less common. Stearin is used in confectionery for chocolates, cakes, etc. and for margarine industries. The most developed and well-known source of stearin is cocoa butter; the development of this production is historical and is based on the “chocolate business” involving a lot of organisms and industries mainly located in “developed” countries. Beside this, other butters like Shea butter, Illipe, Kokum, Sal and mangoare available sources for substitutes in the production of cocoa butter improvers (CBI), equivalent (CBE) or substitutes (CBS). Other markets for Shea butter exist in the personal care industry; the main reason for this growing interest has been the recognition by the cosmetic industry and consumers of the Sheat butter therapeutic benefits (ultra violet light protection, antiinflammatory, moisturizing, regenerative, anti-eczema and anti-wrinkle properties) due to the presence of a significant fraction of unsaponifiable matters (3-15%) composed of many bioactive chemicals, e.g. triterpene alcohols, phenols, sterols and the poly-isoprenic hydrocarbons like karitenes. In this field of valorisation (cosmetics), the unsaponifiable content is a key factor. In 1992 on the demand of DESLOG company, ITERG worked and patented an interesting method of increasing the unsaponifiable content of Shea butter using cryogenic enrichment by fractionation at about – 30 °C. The final product called CRYOKARITENE (registered trade mark) can be enriched up to more than 50% of unsaponifiable and shows excellent dermo-cosmetic properties.

Growth Performance of Broiler Chickens Fed Diets Containing Shea Nut (Vitellaria paradoxa, Gaertn.) Meal Fermented with Aspergillus niger

Shea nut meal is a by-product of the shea fat industry in West Africa. The objective was to determine the effect of shea nut meal fermentation using Aspergillus niger on growth performance of broiler chickens. An expeller shea nut meal was fermented in a closed plastic container for 8 d after the addition of 0.25 g of A. niger spores per kg of shea nut meal in 2 parts of water. Each of the 2 shea nut meal samples (the unfermented and fermented meals) replaced wheatfeed in a control diet at 100 g/kg and fed to 128 Ross 308 male broiler chickens (22 to 36 d). There were 8 replicates per diet (2 shea nut meal samples and the control wheatfeed diet) and 4 birds per replicate in cages (0.6 m × 0.6 m × 0.9 m). Analysis of variance of data was used to compare the treatment means. The fermentation method reduced the concentrations of total soluble phenolics (21.9%), bound plus soluble proanthocyanidins (34.5%), soluble proanthocyanidins (24.7%), and hydrolysable tannins (52.9%) in the shea nut meal. Broilers fed the fermented meal exhibited higher (P < 0.001) growth performance than those fed the unfermented meal. However, the growth performance of broilers fed each of the shea nut meal-based diets was lower (P < 0.001) than that of broilers fed the control diet. Mean live weight gain of broilers fed the fermented shea nut meal diet was 82% of that of broilers fed the control diet. The fermentation of shea nut meal using A. niger has the potential to improve the nutritive value of shea nut meal for poultry, but requires further development.

Shea nut (Vitellaria paradoxa) meal as a feed ingredient for poultry

Shea nut (Vitellaria paradoxa, Gaertner or Butyrospermum parkii, Kotschy) meal, a solid residue from the shea fat industry, is available in large quantities in West Africa. The meal is now receiving increased attention as a potential feed ingredient for poultry due to the increased amounts that are available due to high demand for shea fat in cosmetics and as a cocoa butter substitute in chocolate. Studies have shown nutrient compositions (g/kg dry matter basis) of crude protein (80–250), ether extract (17–362), crude fibre (53–138), ash (33–76) and nitrogen-free extract (318–675); probably with the major part of the variability being due to the amount of fat extraction, handling of the nuts prior to processing, or seasonal effects on nut production. Anti-nutritive factors reported include saponins (3.0-30.0 g/kg), tannins (98.7-156.4 g/kg) and theobromine (4.5 g/kg), which may have detrimental effects on performance of poultry. However, it has been shown that fermentation (i.e. wet incubation of a feedstuff) has the potential to reduce the negative effects of some of these anti-nutritive factors. It is evident that shea nut meal has low nutritive value; therefore it requires further improvements before it can become useful for the poultry feed industry.

Apparent metabolisable energy and digestibility of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) fat, cocoa (Theobroma cacao) fat and soybean oil in broiler chicks

1. The objective of this experiment was to determine and compare the apparent lipid digestibility coefficient and apparent metabolisable energy (AME) value of shea nut (Vitellaria paradoxa, Gaertn.) fat in broiler chickens with that of soybean oil and cocoa fat. 2. One hundred and sixty 13-d-old male broiler chicks were used in a randomised complete block design. The fats were added at 30, 60 and 90 g/kg to a basal diet. A tenth dietary treatment was the basal feed with no added fats or oils. The birds were fed on the diets for 8 d and all droppings were collected for the final 4 d. 3. The mean coefficient of apparent lipid digestibility for shea fat (0·58) was similar to that of cocoa fat (0·54) but lower than that of soybean oil (0·95). There was evidence of a lipid × concentration interaction with the 90 g/kg shea fat diet having low lipid digestibility (0·43). 4. There was an interaction between the effects of dietary lipid concentration and test lipid on AME but, at dietary levels of 60 g/kg and below, the AME of shea fat (22·0 MJ/kg DM) and cocoa fat (26·4 MJ/kg DM) was significantly lower than that of soybean oil (39·8 MJ/kg DM).

Comparison of the physico-chemical characteristics, oxidative and hydrolytic stabilities of oil and fat of cyperus esculentus L. (yellow nutsedge) and butyrospermum parkii (shea nut) from Middle-Belt States of Nigeria

The physico-chemical characteristics, oxidative and hydrolytic changes during storage and accelerated conditions of yellow nutsedge oil and shea fat were studied and comparisons made on the variables. The solvent extract of yellow nutsedge gave an oil yield of 22.3% and that of shea nut gave a fat yield of 52%. The saponification value, non-saponifiable matter, iodine value, refractive index (at 250°C) and colour were 188mg KOH/g, 0.5%, 104.8, 1.4672, and golden yellow respectively for yellow nutsedge oil while for shea fat they were, 191mg KOH/g 3.01%, 59.5, 1.4675 and milky white respectively. The hydrolytic changes occurring over 9 weeks period for solvent extract of yellow. Keywords: physico-chemical characteristics, cyperus spp, oil and fat, NigeriaNigerian Food Journal Vol. 23 2005: 33-39

Carbon And Nitrogen Requirements For The Cultivation Of Oyster Mushroom &lt;i&gt;Pleurotus sajor-caju&lt;/i&gt;

Carbon and Nitrogen requirements for the cultivation of ( Pleurotus sajor-caju ) oyster mushroom were studied. It was found that under these experimental conditions, the carbon compounds supported growth except ribose, starch and dextrin. Cellulose was the most utilized carbon followed by glucose and mannose. Yeast extract, casein and glycine sustained the greatest growth among the nitrogen compounds tested. Tryptophan was the least utilized. Fat and oil were readily metabolized. Cottonseed oil supported the growth most followed by olive oil and shea fat. The least utilized oils were palm kernel oil and palm oil. The best C:N ratio was 5:2, but the least utilized ratios were 1:3 and 1:4. This shows that mycelial growth of Pleurotus sajor-caju can be improved by the application of utilizable carbon and nitrogen sources so identified for good spawn production. Key words: Carbon, Nitrogen, Oyster mushroom, spawn cultivation. Nigerian Food Journal Vol.22 2004: 127-132

THE SKIN TOLERANCE OF SHEA FAT EMPLOYED AS EXCIPIENT IN TOPICAL PREPARATIONS

The skin tolerance of shea fat when used as excipient in topical products has been investigated. Skin irritation or sensitivity testing was carried out in a preliminary skin patch-application pilot study of graded extemporaneous formulations of the indigenous shea fat base with 25 volunteers. A field study by interview was also conducted among 500 users and traders of shea fat-based products, drawn from major city commercial centers across six middle belt and southern states of Nigeria in a bid to determine any side effects known to users that shea fat-based products had ever produced. The objective of this survey was to pool and analyze information on any subliminal or incidental skin irritation or sensitivity to the products gathered from both long-term and recent users of the products. High concentrations (45%, 75%) of Nigerian shea fat in preparations employed in the pilot study were neither irritant nor sensitizing to skin of all volunteers tested. Similarly, the survey revealed that the fat is harmless on skin in topical products. Up to 12 years' continued use of these products had been unconnected with any adverse skin effect. Indigenous shea fat is therefore recommended as well tolerated and suitable for use in topical products. Keywords: Shea fat, ointment base, natural product, raw material, skin tolerance commercial products survey. [Nig. J. Nat. Prod. And Med. Vol.6 2002: 26-30]

Enzyme‐assisted extraction of shea fat: Evidence from light microscopy on the degradative effects of enzyme treatment on cells of shea kernel meal

AbstractA light‐microscopic study on enzyme‐treated sliced shea kernels was done to investigate the principles involved in enzyme‐assisted shea fat extraction. The raw, ellipsoidally shaped kernels, measuring 1.3 to 2.0 cm, were crosssectioned into slices of about 2‐mm thickness, which were then dissected into four or six pieces. These samples were treated with or without enzymes for predetermined periods, fixed and processed for paraffin sections (5 μm). Sections were stained with periodic acid‐Schiff base (PAS) or Coomassie blue (CB) to localize the complex polysaccharides and proteins, respectively. The cells of the enzyme‐treated samples showed distinct degradation and a high loss of cellular integrity. PAS reaction and CB staining of these cells confirmed high loss of cellular materials compared to control samples. This was also reflected in the increases of the soluble protein and free sugar contents of the effluent water collected from samples after treatment. The oilseed materials during preextraction. They thus support the principle of using enzyme treatments to improve fat yield in solvent extraction systems, as has been reported by various investigators.

Enzyme‐assisted aqueous extraction of shea fat: A rural approach

The use of enzyme-assisted partial hydrolysis as a preextraction treatment in a rural shea fat extraction process to improve upon the extraction rates of the process was explored following an observed possibility in a preliminary investigation. Finely ground shea kernel meal samples were mixed with water in predetermined ratios and heated to inactivate any enzymes present. A crude protease and an enzyme with both hemicellulase and cellulase activities were added and mixed, also in predetermined concentrations. The suspensions were incubated in a waterbath shaker at temperatures ranging from 30 to 45°C for specified periods of time. The treated meal samples were then extracted using an adapted traditional aqueous extraction process. At optimum meal-to-water ratio of 1:2, enzyme concentration of 1%, the natural pH of the meal (about 5.3), and incubation time of 4 h, the enzyme treatment increased the extraction rate from about 40% in the typical traditional system (control) to about 75%, of the total fat content (estimated by the Soxhlet method). The enzyme-treated meal samples were very easy to extract as there was no need to cream or whip out the fat, as is laboriously done in the traditional process. The extracted fat samples had apparently less unsaponifiable matter content and slightly less free fatty acid content and peroxide value, compared to samples from the typical traditional process and, in some cases, the Soxhlet extracted samples. The observations confirmed the results of the preliminary investigations and suggest that the enzyme-assisted preextraction treatment could significantly improve upon the aqueous shea fat extraction process.

Enzyme‐assisted aqueous extraction of shea fat: A rural approach

AbstractThe use of enzyme‐assisted partial hydrolysis as a preextraction treatment in a rural shea fat extraction process to improve upon the extraction rates of the process was explored following an observed possibility in a preliminary investigation. Finely ground shea kernel meal samples were mixed with water in predetermined ratios and heated to inactivate any enzymes present. A crude protease and an enzyme with both hemicellulase and cellulase activities were added and mixed, also in predetermined concentrations. The suspensions were incubated in a waterbath shaker at temperatures ranging from 30 to 45°C for specified periods of time. The treated meal samples were then extracted using an adapted traditional aqueous extraction process. At optimum meal‐to‐water ratio of 1:2, enzyme concentration of 1%, the natural pH of the meal (about 5.3), and incubation time of 4 h, the enzyme treatment increased the extraction rate from about 40% in the typical traditional system (control) to about 75%, of the total fat content (estimated by the Soxhlet method). The enzyme‐treated meal samples were very easy to extract as there was no need to cream or whip out the fat, as is laboriously done in the traditional process. The extracted fat samples had apparently less unsaponifiable matter content and slightly less free fatty acid content and peroxide value, compared to samples from the typical traditional process and, in some cases, the Soxhlet extracted samples. The observations confirmed the results of the preliminary investigations and suggest that the enzyme‐assisted preextraction treatment could significantly improve upon the aqueous shea fat extraction process.

Enzyme‐assisted aqueous extraction of fat from kernels of the shea tree,Butyrospermum parkii

AbstractChemical characteristics of kernels of the shea tree (Butyrospermum parkii) from Ghana were determined in order to design and evaluate studies on a traditional enzyme‐assisted fat extraction of the kernels. The effectiveness of a number of cellular degrading enzymes in assisting the shea fat extraction were also tested by treating meals of the kernels with one or more of these enzymes before extraction and comparing the yield with control extractions. Proximate composition of the kernel on dry‐matter basis was: total lipids, 59.04%; crude fat, 54.85; protein, 7.81%; total carbohydrates, 34.77%; ash, 2.57%. Starch content was 7.59%; hemicellulose, 10.84%; cellulose, 5.95%; and pectic substances, 2.93%. Total fiber content was 20.35%. The fat extracted by the Soxhlet method was pale‐yellow in color and solid at room temperatures. Its physicochemical characteristics were: melting range, 34–36°C; iodine value, 58.53; saponification value, 180.37; and unsaponifiable matter content, 7.48%. The predominant fatty acids were: palmitic (3.55%), stearic (44.44%), oleic (42.41%), linoleic (5.88%) and linolenic (1.66%) acids. The enzyme‐assisted extraction tests showed increases in extraction yield when the shea kernel meals were treated with the enzyme(s) before extraction. An increase of about 20% was realized when a protease and an enzyme with both cellulase and hemicellulase activities were used together. These observations confirmed the fact that the shea kernel is a rich source of fat. They also indicate the possibility of improving shea kernel extraction processes by pretreating the kernel meal with cell structure‐degrading enzymes.

In‐product jojoba determination using anticircular high performance thin layer chromatography

AbstractCosmetic creams were analyzed for their content of jojoba wax and shea fat using anticircular HPTLC, a fast, precise, and reliable method. After optimization of the solvent system (petrol ether/diethyl ether) for the separation of jojoba wax and shea fat, the spots were visualized with phosphomolybdic acid by the “dip‐in” technique, subsequently heated, and finally recorded by scanning with a densitometer at 546 nm. Results showed that one particular concentration range gives an optimum correlation between calibration curves and sample evaluations.

Identification of chondrillasterol in twoCucurbitaceae seed oils by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

AbstractThe absolute configuration at C‐24 of C‐24 epimeric 24‐ethyl‐5α‐cholesta‐7,E‐22‐dien‐3β‐ols I–IV previously isolated from tea seed oil, shea fat, and gourd and sponge cucumber seed oils, respectively, was studied by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The results showed that the sterols I and II are identical with spinasterol (24S/α‐ethyl group), whereas the sterols III and IV are identified as its 24R/β‐epimer, chondrillasterol. This study has thus for the first time properly documented the presence in tracheophytes of a 24β‐ethylsterol in which Δ25(27)‐bond is reduced.

Sterols, methylsterols, and triterpene alcohols in three Theaceae and some other vegetable oils.

AbstractThe unsaponifiables from threeTheaceae (Camellia japonica L.,Camellia Sasanqua Thunb., andThea sinensis L.) oils and alfalfa, garden balsam, and spinach seed oils and shea fat were separated into four fractions: sterols, 4‐methylsterols, triterpene alcohols, and less polar compounds by thin layer chromatography. While the sterol fraction was the major one for the unsaponifiables from alfalfa and spinach seed oils, the triterpene alcohol fraction was predominant for the unsaponifiables from all other oils. The sterol, 4‐methylsterol, and triterpene alcohol fractions were analyzed by gas chromatography. All the sterol fractions were alike in their compositions, consisting exclusively of Δ7‐sterols, such as α‐spinasterol and Δ7‐stigmastenol as predominant components together with Δ7‐avenasterol and 24‐methylcholest‐7‐enol. Obtusifoliol, gramisterol (occasionally accompanied with cycloeucalenol), and citrostadienol, together with several other unidentified components, were found in the 4‐methylsterol fractions from all of the oils except shea fat. The 4‐methylsterol fraction from shea fat showed a characteristic composition containing a large proportion of unidentified components which had relative retention time greater than that of citrostadienol, while no citrostadienol was detected. β‐Amyrin, lupeol, and butyospermol were major components of the triterpene alcohol fractions from most of the oils, but the fraction from spinach seed oil contained cycloartenol and 24‐methylene‐cycloartanol as predominant components. There is a close similarity in the compositions of unsaponifiables (sterols, 4‐methylsterols, and triterpene alcohols) of the threeTheaceae oils. Two sterols, α‐spinasterol and Δ7‐stigmastenol, and five triterpene alcohols were isolated from tea seed oil. Moreover, five unidentified components beside parkeol, butyrospermol, α‐amyrin, and lupeol were isolated from the triterpene alcohol fraction of shea fat.