Shared Book Reading Research Articles

Drawing attention to print or meaning: How parents read with their preschool‐aged children on paper and on screens

BackgroundShared reading is an important opportunity for parents and children to connect and learn, which can support later independent reading skills. Much of the research to date has examined shared reading as parents read physical print books with their children. This research has demonstrated that parents tend to engage in more activities that emphasise the meaning of the stories over the code (i.e., print). Here, we examine the focus of shared reading when parents are reading with their children on paper versus on a digital device and whether this differs across the preschool years.MethodsA total of 253 parents of children aged 0–5 years completed an online self‐report questionnaire. Parents reported on the frequency of engaging in meaning‐ versus code‐related activities during shared book reading on paper and on screen with their youngest child. We conducted a linear regression analysis contrasting code‐ versus meaning‐related activities on paper versus screen modality with age as a continuous variable.ResultsKey to our objectives, parents reported engaging in meaning‐related activities more frequently during shared reading on paper versus on screens and in code‐related activities more frequently during shared reading on screens than on paper. These effects did not differ across age, although overall, parents reported engaging slightly more frequently in shared reading activities in general when their child was older.ConclusionsThe findings show that parents are engaging with their children differently as they read together on paper versus screens. Consistent with prior research, we found that activities emphasising the meaning of stories dominate shared paper book reading experiences in the preschool years. Critically shared reading on screens tips this balance, with parents reporting more code‐related activities. These patterns identify the learning opportunities enabled by the affordances of shared reading on screens.

The Impact of Shared Book Reading on Children and Families: A Study of Dolly Parton’s Imagination Library in Tamworth, Australia

ABSTRACT This longitudinal cohort-study investigated the impact of Dolly Parton’s Imagination Library (the Imagination Library) in Tamworth, Australia. The Imagination Library delivers age-appropriate books to children from the time of their birth until their fifth birthday. Caregivers of Tamworth children completed surveys about their experience with the program after receiving one book (“baseline;” N = 343) and then at six months (N = 116) and three years (N = 89). Their responses indicated that children in the Imagination Library were read to more frequently, for longer durations, and had more books in their homes than the average Australian child, as represented by large independent databases. Tamworth caregivers who read to their child at least once a day at baseline were nearly five times more likely to read daily after six months and three years than those who did not read daily at baseline (OR 4.9 (95% CI 1.8,13.7)). Further, children who were read to daily at three years showed more emerging literacy skills than those who were not read to daily. These outcomes suggest that shared book reading generally, and the Imagination Library specifically, encourages sustained reading practices that are associated with developing emerging literacy skills.

Growth of shared book reading in the first two years and its effects on children’s development

This study aims to explore the impact of shared book reading (SBR) on child development beyond language and literacy at the very beginning of children’s lives. Utilizing the latent growth curve model, the study analyzed data collected from 4,441 Taiwanese children at 3, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months old. The results revealed that, on average, parents spent 13 min per week reading books to their 3-month-old children. This reading time increased from 3 to 24 months, at an approximate rate of 5 min every 3 months. Notably, parents with higher educational levels, better occupations, and higher family incomes tended to spend more time reading at the 3-month mark and exhibited higher growth rates in the time allocated to reading. Additionally, the study provides evidence that engaging in SBR during the infant stage significantly contributes to children’s cognitive, language, social, and emotional development in the toddler stage.

Print-Rich Speech Sound Therapy Sessions: The Theory Behind It and Plans for Implementation

Purpose: Print knowledge is a powerful predictor of later reading abilities, which are crucial to children's academic success. Children with speech sound disorders (SSDs) are at risk for literacy difficulties. Speech sound therapy is an opportune time to address not only speech sound production but also the connections between speech sounds and their associated letters and letter patterns. This tutorial aims to provide a rich source of evidence to support the use of print and print-referencing in speech sound therapy sessions. We include feasible suggestions for speech-language pathologists (SLPs) to facilitate print-rich experiences for children with SSDs. Incorporating orthography into therapy sessions, through activities such as shared book reading, allows SLPs to address speech sound errors while supporting children's literacy development. Conclusions: This tutorial provides an overview of the risk of literacy deficits in children with SSDs and describes the theoretical underpinnings of why incorporating print is a powerful learning tool. We expand on the research behind print referencing in preschool classrooms. Finally, we provide detailed examples, including book lists and therapy ideas for a variety of ages, to help SLPs add print referencing to their therapy toolkit.

The quality of caregiver-child interaction is predicted by (caregivers' perception of) their child's interests.

This current study examines the extent to which children's interests and caregivers' sensitivity to their children's interests are associated with the quality of caregiver-child interaction, and subsequent learning. Eighty-one caregiver-child dyads (24-30-month old children) completed an online shared book-reading task where caregivers and children read two e-books with pictures and descriptions of objects from different categories-one previously determined to be of low and one of high interest to the child (with one novel word-object mapping introduced in each book). We also obtained separate behavioural indices of children's interests and children's later recognition of newly introduced word-object mappings. Our findings highlight that the quality of caregiver-child interaction is predicted by children's interests and caregivers' perception of children's interests, although we find only limited overlap between our behavioural indices of children's interests and caregiver perception of children's interests. Neither of these factors predicted later novel word recognition. Thus, while the dynamics between higher quality of caregiver-child interaction, children's interests and learning remain inconclusive, caregivers and children appear to be more attentive, enthusiastic and engaged in reading about topics that (caregivers believe) interest the child. Furthermore, learning in itself seems to be successful, regardless of factors involved, through the mere task of shared book reading.

The Effect of Online Bilingual Shared Book Reading on Vocabulary Learning for Korean-English Bilingual Children

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a bilingual shared book reading intervention on vocabulary learning for Korean-English bilingual children with and without developmental language disorder (DLD).Methods: A total of 16 Korean-English bilingual children aged 4-6 (9 typically developing children and 7 children with DLD) participated in this study. Participants participated in a bilingual shared book reading intervention using bridging to L1 techniques twice a week for 3 weeks, for a total of 6 sessions. Korean, English, and conceptual receptive vocabulary, expressive vocabulary, and expressive definitions were assessed at pre and post tests to examine the effect of the intervention on vocabulary learning.Results: First, there was a statistically significant increase between pre-test and post-test results on all measures of Korean, English, and conceptually scored receptive vocabulary, expressive vocabulary, and expressive definitions for typically developing children. Second, there was a statistically significant increase between pre-test and post-test results on measures of Korean receptive vocabulary, English receptive and expressive vocabulary, and conceptually scored receptive and expressive vocabulary for children with DLD.Conclusion: These results provide preliminary evidence that bilingual shared book reading is an effective method of vocabulary intervention for Korean-English bilingual children with and without DLD.

Exploring the influence of the home literacy environment on early literacy and vocabulary skills in Korean-English bilingual children.

Studies have emphasized the significance of maintaining a heritage language for various reasons such as the establishment of linguistic and cultural identity, as well as socio-emotional development. Despite the crucial role that literacy development in a heritage language plays in language preservation, there is a scant research that explores the impact of home literacy environment and literacy development in children with a heritage language. This study aimed to examine the home literacy environment and literacy-related skills in 4-to 5-year-old Korean-English bilingual children living in an English-speaking country, Australia, whose heritage language is Korean, and to investigate the relationships among the home literacy environment factors and the child-internal literacy-related skills. The study employed parental questionnaires and video analyses of parent-child shared book reading sessions to assess the Korean and English home literacy environment. Children's early literacy skills in Korean and English, along with their Korean, English, and conceptual vocabulary skills, were measured as literacy-related skills. The findings indicated that parents utilized an indirect approach for Korean literacy practices, in contrast to a more direct and explicit method for English literacy practices. However, active and direct literacy practices were found to be essential for Korean early literacy development, while indirect methods are sufficient for English early literacy skills. Moreover, the availability of abundant Korean literacy resources at home had a positive impact on the development of Korean and English, as well as conceptual vocabulary skills. In conclusion, this study underscores the importance of providing a robust literacy environment in a heritage language in bilingual families to promote language proficiency in both the heritage language and the dominant social language, while also supporting the development of conceptual language skills.

Comparison of Using Modified and Nonmodified Books on Comprehension of Students With Extensive Support Needs

Modified books are frequently used as comprehension supports for students with extensive support needs (ESN), despite limited evaluations of their creation process or impact on comprehension. This study evaluates the impact of individualized book and comprehension question modifications made through a systematic decision-making process on student comprehension during nonfiction shared book reading in general education classes. A repeated acquisition single-case research design was used to compare student comprehension of nonmodified and modified books for one first-grade and one fourth-grade student with autism and moderate intellectual disability. Findings indicate student comprehension was higher after reading modified grade-level, nonfiction books compared with similarly matched nonmodified books. These findings show students with ESN can access grade-level books in general education settings with individualized modifications. Recommendations for research and practice are shared. These recommendations include a systematic process for identification of the type and intensity of book modifications that may support comprehension for students with ESN.

Media exposure and preschoolers' social-cognitive development.

Exposure to narratives may have beneficial effects on children's social-cognitive development because narratives provide information about the social world and often require social understanding for story comprehension. In the current study, we examined the influence of narratives presented via different media (books, audiobooks, TV/films) on theory-of-mind performance and mental verb comprehension in a sample of 114 three- to six-year-old preschool children. Parents' reports on the number of (children's) books at home, the overall duration of TV/film and audio media exposure, the frequency of shared book reading, watching children's TV/films and audiobook listening, and parent-child discussions about media content were collected. Children's theory-of-mind performance and mental verb comprehension were measured as dependent variables. When gender, age, language skills and parental education were controlled, only the number of children's books, shared book reading frequency, audio-media exposure and audiobook usage significantly predicted children's theory-of-mind scores. None of the media exposure or the parent-child discussion variables had significant incremental effects above the family and child characteristics on mental verb comprehension.

Quantity and quality of book reading to infants and toddlers: their effect on early communication and language development

Among the various parent-child interactions taking place in a typical family context, interactive shared book reading (ISBR) has been shown to have a superior value in fostering language development. Although many studies have established the linguistic benefits of ISBR in preschoolers, results on children younger than 3 years are scarce. This cross-sectional parental report study explores the contribution of the quantity and quality of shared book reading to the communicative and language skills of a large sample of infants and toddlers growing up in Greek-speaking families. The parents of 740 children aged 6 to 36 months filled in the Interactive Shared Book Reading Strategies Questionnaire that assesses the number and frequency of interactive strategies adopted by caregivers during shared book reading. Parents were also administered the Communication Development Report, a standardized instrument for assessing Greek-speaking children's communication and language skills. Results are presented on (a) shared book reading quantity (frequency) and quality (interactive strategies), (b) the effect of these two factors on children's nonverbal communication (nonvocal and vocal), as well as their language development (comprehension, expressive vocabulary, morphology, and syntax), and (c) the effect of several contextual factors on this association. Results highlight the large effect of both the quantity and the quality of shared book reading in different dimensions of the children's communication and language. Birth order, siblings, and maternal education affected the quantity (but not the quality) of shared book reading. Overall, results confirm and extend previous findings regarding the benefits of shared book reading to children's vocabulary, morphology and syntax, pointing to the significant contribution of its quality rather than its quantity. They also add interesting findings regarding the significant contribution of shared book reading to children's nonverbal communicative skills. Results are discussed based on previous relevant findings for their theoretical implications. Their applied interest in the early prevention of language difficulties is also discussed.

The effects of practice-based coaching and scripted supports on teachers’ implementation of shared book reading strategies

High-quality professional development can lead to increased and sustained implementation of evidence-based practices. This study examined the effects of practice-based coaching (PBC) paired with scripted supports on teachers’ use of shared book reading strategies. The primary dependent variable was percentage of strategies correctly implemented; the secondary dependent variable was expressive and receptive vocabulary knowledge of three preschool children with a language delay. The study aimed to address the following research questions: (1) What are the effects of PBC and scripted supports on preschool teachers’ implementation of shared book reading strategies? (2) Does preschool teacher's implementation of shared book reading strategies influence the expressive and receptive language of preschool age children (i.e., between 36–60 months) with language delays? Employing a single-case multiple baseline across participants design, three teachers were trained on three strategies (i.e., question/evaluate, expansions, and repeat) embedded within the context of shared book reading. Visual analysis is the gold standard for evaluating results in SCRD and include evaluating the level, trend, and variability of data, as well as analyzing the immediacy of effect, overlap of data in adjacent phases, and the consistency of data patterns in other conditions. Results were variable for one participant. Corresponding child-level data for all three participants was also positive. Implications for future research are discussed. Teachers and therapists can benefit from the PBC model when working with preschool children who have language delays. A limitation of the study is a lack of a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variable due to time constraints with data collection.

Exploring the impact of a co-designed shared book reading environment for families in a community hub.

Evidence supports the effectiveness of shared book reading for promoting language and literacy development, but it is known that families experiencing vulnerability may have reduced access to books and are less likely to share books regularly at home. Community hubs often provide support to families experiencing vulnerability and may provide an opportunity to create environments that support families to engage in shared book reading, especially if families are invited into the creation of these environments through co-design. However, there is currently little evidence regarding the impact of co-designing shared book reading environments with families in community settings. The current study is part of a broader project which used co-design to develop a shared book reading environment in collaboration with stakeholders in a community hub. This small-scale study aimed to provide a preliminary evaluation of the impact of this co-designed shared book reading environment at the community hub on (1) the frequency of shared book reading at the hub; (2) participants' confidence and enjoyment of reading with children at the hub; and (3) participants' experiences of shared book reading at the hub. The co-design project was carried out in four phases with families, staff and community partners at the community hub. A convergent mixed-methods approach was used to collect and analyse quantitative and qualitative data in the first and last phase of the project to evaluate project outcomes. Quantitative data (environmental observations of reading at the hub and participant ratings of confidence and enjoyment of reading with children at the hub) were analysed using descriptive statistics and nonparametric statistical tests. Qualitative data (participants' responses regarding their experiences of changes implemented in the community hub) were analysed using inductive content analysis. An increased frequency of shared book reading was observed within the community hub after changes were implemented, and positive changes in enjoyment of book reading were recorded. Qualitative responses from participants following conclusion of the project were organised into three main categories, which showed that (1) children and families were reading more and enjoying reading activities that were happening; (2) children and families were borrowing more books; and (3) families had changed the way they were reading at home with their children. A co-designed shared book reading environment within a community hub had a positive impact on shared book reading experiences for families in areas with high levels of vulnerability. What is already known on this subject Community hubs provide a unique opportunity to support early language and literacy development in partnership with families in areas of vulnerability; however, there is limited literature investigating the impacts of these supports. A previous study utilised co-design to develop a shared book reading environment with stakeholders at a community hub in an area where a high proportion of children are considered to be 'vulnerable' in terms of language and literacy development. It was found that co-design enabled the development of collaborative changes to support shared book reading that were valued and owned by families, staff and community partners at the community hub. What this study adds The current study focused on evaluating the impact of a co-design project on the frequency of shared book reading at the hub and participants' experiences, confidence and enjoyment of reading with children at the hub. Analysis of pre- and post-data provide preliminary evidence that a co-designed shared book reading environment in a community hub can have a positive impact on increasing families' awareness and engagement with book borrowing, engagement in shared book reading activities in the community and at home, and participants' confidence and enjoyment of reading with children. What are the clinical implications of this work? Speech pathologists have an important role to play in prevention and promotion. This study has shown that collaboration with families experiencing vulnerability can support the implementation of strategies to promote shared reading in a community hub and demonstrate increased quality and frequency of shared book reading. The utilisation of a community hub also highlights the opportunities for the speech pathology profession to deliver community-based promotion and prevention initiatives as a strategy to address equitable language outcomes.

Parental involvement in shared book reading for preschoolers in China: Patterns and risks

AbstractPrevious studies have elucidated the positive effect of the quantity and onset age of shared book reading on children's language development. Few studies have addressed the profiles of parental involvement in terms of different key aspects of shared book reading. This study adopted a latent profile analysis to examine the patterns of parental involvement in shared book reading and associated factors; 980 Chinese parents of kindergarten children were investigated. Three profiles were identified: (1) late start and infrequent reading; (2) early start and frequent reading; (3) medium start and intensive reading. Higher socioeconomic status, more literacy resources, and older age of the children were all found to be more likely to be associated with identification with Profile 2 than Profile 1. Implications for more targeted parental intervention programmes to broaden access to home literacy resources are highlighted.

Preschool Children’s Engagement and Verbal Participation During Shared Book Reading

Preschool Children’s Engagement and Verbal Participation During Shared Book Reading

The Role of Home Literacy Environment in the Acquisition of Oral Language Skills in the Preschool Years

Parental involvement, home literacy environment, socioeconomic status, and literary resources are some of the factors that positively influence language acquisition. Exposure to materials and activities that support oral language development, such as picture books, alphabet books, stories, songs and shared book reading experiences create a responsive and encouraging home literacy environment. However, there is currently no evidence in Zambia to show how the home literacy environment (HLE) affects the development of oral language in children. Therefore, the overall objective of the study was to examine the extent to which the home literacy environment influenced children’s oral language development. The study further sought to identify the factors within the home environment that supported development of oral language skills. The study used a mixed methods approach because it allowed the researcher to benefit from detailed insights offered by the participants on one hand as well as the generalizable inferential statistics drawn using quantitative data. This was important because it allowed for the triangulation of the data and offered complementary advantage in drawing conclusions. The study used a Familiar Language Test (FLT) and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) tests to conduct child assessments while a home structured guide was used to collect socio-economic data and home parent-child practices. The data generated from the study was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) while qualitative data was analysed thematically. The study comprised 100 preschoolers (50 males and 50 girls) drawn from selected early childhood centres in Lusaka district. The study concluded that activities such as shared book reading, singing, and storytelling were crucial in fostering language development at home. Therefore, it was recommended that parents or caregivers should engage children at home in storytelling, book reading and songs to promote the development of oral language skills in the early years.

A Comparative Study on Visual Attention, Verbal Engagement and Parental Behaviors During Shared Book Reading Using Scripted and Unscripted Story Books for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Purpose: Shared book reading is nowadays considered as an important early language stimulation technique in the field of speech language pathology which encourages parent-child bonding and creates a conducive environment for language development. The parent-child interaction is important for a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder. This interaction along with adequate and contingent parental responses fosters early language development in children. Language-related parent behaviors promote children’s oral language skills by not only exposing the child to book-related vocabulary (e.g., labeling pictures, explaining word meanings, and linking words to everyday events), but also through explicit teaching of meaning-related skills related to the overall structure of the story (i.e., story grammar). Print-related SBR behaviors draw the child’s attention to print-related features of the book, for example, letter names and sounds.Methods: To better understand the relationship between children’s visual attention, verbal engagement and parent shared book reading behaviors during shared book reading tasks, this study included 10 preschoolers on the Autism Spectrum and their parents sharing an unfamiliar storybook including which are scripted and unscripted. Videos of the shared book reading interactions were transcribed and coded for visual attention, verbal engagement and parent behaviors using observational coding schemes. The frequency of visual attention, verbal engagement and parental SBR behaviors were compared between the scripted and unscripted story books using statistical tests-Wilcoxon signed rank test and Fisher’s Exact test.Results: Result reveals that there was no statistically significant difference between frequency of visual attention during unscripted story books and scripted books. Parental behaviors parameters pertaining to shared book reading were analyzed and found a significant difference in usage of book language is greater for scripted story books compared to unscripted books.Conclusions: The key findings shows the type of book (scripted or unscripted) have a significant impact and its contribution to the intervention of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Parental SBR behaviors can in turn contribute to the development of childhood language and preliteracy skills.

Professional Development Increases Child Care Providers’ NDBI Implementation and Children’s Language Outcomes

A majority of children’s language learning experiences occur in inclusive early child care and education settings. Few evidence-based professional development (PD) programs exist to empower early childhood education providers to use language instruction practices with children in inclusive classrooms. There is little research on providers’ implementation of naturalistic developmental behavioral intervention (NDBI) strategies to improve children’s language outcomes in whole-group inclusive instruction. We conducted a pilot cluster randomized controlled trial to test the hypothesis that providers in the Early Achievements for Child Care Providers (EA-CP) PD program would show greater gains in NDBI implementation fidelity during shared book reading relative to business-as-usual (BAU) providers. This hypothesis was confirmed. Compared to BAU providers, EA-CP providers exhibited significantly greater fidelity gains from pre-training to mid-training, post-training, and 12-week maintenance assessments. A secondary hypothesis was that toddlers with and without developmental delays in the EA-CP condition would exhibit greater vocabulary and communication gains than toddlers in the BAU condition. Analyses of children with and without delays showed significantly greater expressive vocabulary and story-related engagement and communication in the EA-CP group. For children with delays, positive effects favoring the EA-CP group but not statistically significant were found. Implications for research, practice, and policy are discussed.

Reading Aloud to Children, Social Inequalities and Vocabulary Development: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial

This article presents the results of an RCT assessing the impact of a Shared Book Reading (SBR) intervention that targeted children aged 4 attending kindergarten. We selected a large, random sample of families living in the city of Paris and provided parents of treated classes with free books for children, information on the benefits of book reading and tips for effective reading practices. We measured book reading frequency and children’s vocabulary before and after this intervention among treated and control children, and we found evidence of positive treatment effects on book reading frequency and on one of our two measures of receptive vocabulary. Moreover, we measured treatment impacts on this vocabulary measure at a 6-month follow-up and found that they were persistent. This light-touch intervention was particularly beneficial to male children, to children from families with low levels of education and from the most disadvantaged schools. Children from bilingual families benefited as much as their native counterparts.

Small-group vocabulary intervention combining elements from shared book Reading and the Lexicon pirate method – A pilot study of multilingual children with speech, language and communication needs

Multilingual children living in areas with low socioeconomic status (SES) are at an increased risk of having speech, language and communication needs (SLCN). Many multilingual children with SLCN in Sweden have insufficient basic vocabulary knowledge in the majority language, preventing them from achieving the school's learning goals. However, there is a lack of studies of interventions that could improve vocabulary development in this group, and that can be delivered in an everyday educational setting. This pilot study evaluates the effect of a school-based vocabulary group intervention, which combines elements from shared book reading and the Lexicon Pirate method, on vocabulary skills. A non-randomised pretest–posttest control group design was used. Eighteen six- to seven-year-old multilingual children attending preschool class in low SES areas either received intervention (n = 9) or were included in a control group (n = 9). The intervention group participated in 12 intervention sessions over six weeks. Word knowledge, semantic fluency, and comprehension of semantic relations were assessed pre- and post-intervention. Results revealed that children in the intervention group demonstrated significant gains in knowledge of both trained and untrained words, compared to the control group. No effects were found on semantic fluency or comprehension of semantic relations.

Oral language interventions can improve language outcomes in children with neurodevelopmental disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Young people who fail to develop language as expected face significant challenges in all aspects of life. Unfortunately, language disorders are common, either as a distinct condition (e.g., Developmental Language Disorder) or as a part of another neurodevelopmental condition (e.g., autism). Finding ways to attenuate language problems through intervention has the potential to yield great benefits not only for the individual but also for society as a whole. This meta-analytic review examined the effect of oral language interventions for children with neurodevelopmental disorders. The last electronic search was conducted in April 2022. Intervention studies had to target language skills for children from 2 to 18 years of age with Developmental Language Disorder, autism, intellectual disability, Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Williams syndrome in randomised controlled trials or quasi-experimental designs. Control groups had to include business-as-usual, waiting list, passive or active conditions. However, we excluded studies in which the active control group received a different type, delivery, or dosage of another language intervention. Eligible interventions implemented explicit and structured activities (i.e., explicit instruction of vocabulary, narrative structure or grammatical rules) and/or implicit and broad activities (i.e., shared book reading, general language stimulation). The intervention studies had to assess language skills in receptive and/or expressive modalities. The search provided 8195 records after deduplication. Records were screened by title and abstract, leading to full-text examinations of 448 records. We performed Correlated and Hierarchical Effects models and ran a retrospective power analysis via simulation. Publication bias was assessed via p-curve and precision-effect estimate. We examined 38 studies, with 46 group comparisons and 108 effects comparing pre-/post-tests and eight studies, with 12 group comparisons and 21 effects at follow-up. The results showed a mean effect size of d = 0.27 at the post-test and d = 0.18 at follow-up. However, there was evidence of publication bias and overestimation of the mean effects. Effects from the meta-analysis were significantly related to these elements: (1) receptive vocabulary and omnibus receptive measures showed smaller effect sizes relative to expressive vocabulary, grammar, expressive and receptive discourse, and omnibus expressive tests; and (2) the length of the intervention, where longer sessions conducted over a longer period of time were more beneficial than brief sessions and short-term interventions. Neither moderators concerning participants' characteristics (children's diagnosis, diagnostic status, age, sex, and non-verbal cognitive ability and severity of language impairment), nor those regarding of the treatment components and implementation of the language interventions (intervention content, setting, delivery agent, session structure of the intervention or total number of sessions) reached significance. The same occurred to indicators of study quality. The risk of bias assessment showed that reporting quality for the studies examined in the review was poor. In sum, the current evidence base is promising but inconclusive. Pre-registration and replication of more robust and adequately powered trials, which include a wider range of diagnostic conditions, together with more long-term follow-up comparisons, are needed to drive evidence-based practice and policy.